nilanjana som

Kashmir

2011-11-07T10:25:00.001-08:00

[A]gar Firdaus Ba-Roohe Zameenast Hameenasto Hameenasto Hammenast...
Of course, Jehangir repeated it in Kashmir and built the existing Shalimar Bagh for his queen, replicating the serene beauty. It is no secret that people visit Kashmir to enjoy its scenic beauty. I was no different. But I had another reason as well. Years ago, my mother had visited Kashmir. I too wanted to go there too. So, this year I finally managed my first trip to Kashmir. I am sure more are to come.
My friends and I decided to utilise the Diwali holiday and weekends and design a long stay in Srinagar and visit Pahalgaum, Gulmarg and Sonmarg. We were excited and rushed to Delhi airport to book right hand side window seats for ourselves. Because it is from here that one can see the snow-capped mountain peaks. We were screaming and screeching on top of our voices. It was excitement.
God, in the plane I met a guy with the most beautiful eyes. And I was about to find out that every second Kashmiri has gorgeous eyes. We decided to gorge them out and start a business of selling them to rich clients!
We had booked ourselves at a houseboat with a nice Kashmiri family who has been running this business for years (The Shelter Groups of Houseboats). But we had avoided the crowded Dal Lake and chose Jhelum. It was right opposite the S.P.S. Museum in Lal Mandi.
Anyway, all excited and screaming we arrived at Srinagar, checked in and had a cup of kawah. Everything looked and smelled WOW! We were in paradise. After a bit of rest and lunch, we went the tourist way. Our first stop was Pari Mahal, atop of Zebanwan Mountain, southwest of Dal Lake and approximately 5 km west of the center of Srinagar. It consists of six terraces built on a Buddhist ruin by Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. A keen observer will immediately get the feeling of a Buddhist vihara. The complex has beautiful gardens on each level and a wonderful view.
From, here began our tour of the Mughal Gardens – Chashme-Shahi, Nishat Bagh and Shalimar Bagh followed next. Wonderful Mughal layout with British renovated lawns and exquisite Kashmiri beauty. The fresh spring, the serene mountain backdrop, the silent flow of water and the autumn set Chinar trees – it is difficult to adjust your eyes to the abundance and blessing of nature on this land.
Sadly, we had gone there with an itinerary. Kashmir is not a place to explore with a map and mineral water. It is to relax and enjoy. We went in autumn, to couple the Diwali and Bhai Duj holiday with the weekend, we missed a lot. Autumn means, no snow, cold weather but no cherries! However, there is no more any concept of off-season in India. It is either season or peak season.
So I will not talk about our little itinerary. I will babble about what I liked. And to my mind comes three things – Sun Temple in Martanda en route Pahalgaum, meeting an old class-mate in S.P.S. Museum and sipping kawah while pretending I know a lot about dry fruits and saffron. I will also tell you what I did not like. Let me talk about that first. Tips. In any tourist place the auto-wala, drivers, waiter etc. etc. on top of their regular cuts and pays, loots you with their demands of tips. I think I spent more money on tipping people than on shopping.
Secondly, I think the Kashmiris are very rude. They are all sweet till only 1830 hrs. After that if you do not let them go back to their home, they can be the rudest people. It leaves you wandering ‘shouldn’t they be following our time-table?’ I do agree, sun sets by 1800 hrs and it becomes dark, but how does it matter to a tourist? It is a bit strange given the fact that most of the places are at least 3 hours drive from Srinagar and they do not start early due to fog.
But our driver was anyway kind enough to take de-tour at 1700 hours and take us to Martanda (another name for Sun, the son of Aditi) Temple in Anantnag district. I came across the existence of this early 8th century CE temple in “Jesus Lived In India.” Frankly, I found that book quite bogus. Anyway, it is mentioned in the book, Sun Temple is laid of Jewish ground-plan. The photograph looked interesting. So, it was there in the back of my mind, but not in our itinerary. But, the cute Sardarji who guided us about the history of the ruins of Avantiswamin temple insisted that we must visit the Sun Temple. So we did. It is beautiful. The temple though in ruin, gives out in every way the aura it had once held.
The main deity is missing and there is not much adoration on the walls of the temples. It is but an early temple that was developing into the formal North Indian temple architecture. It has a beautiful garden maintained by the ASI staff and an orchid. It is a must visit. However, locally this is famous as Purana Surya Mandir of Panadav valley. Please do not stop at the new Surya temple that many confuse Martanda temple with. The road up to the temple after you cross the Martanda market is equally beautiful. One must also stop at the Shiva temple just before Avantiswamin Temple.
Later however, when I checked with my curator-friend from S.P.S. Museum informed that though many believe that there was a prominent number of Jews in Kashmir, there is no archaeological evidence. It will be though interesting to dig deep because the father of our house-boat had typical Israelite look and some customs apparently matches the Jewish tradition. We do know that there were Jews in Afghanistan. Now however, there is probably only one Jew left there and he could well be dead by the time this article is published. The point being many people has migrated from Afghanistan. In earlier times, many entered Kashmir through the silk rote before the Common Era, as popularly believed.
Kashmir is not just rich because of its natural beauty. The land is known to be tolerant of many religions and races. It amalgamated various traditions into its own custom and spread it to the world. The remnants of it can still be felt.
Continuing with our journey from the Martanda temple, we stopped to buy dry fruits and saffron. There are number of shops that sell them. But we stopped at a recommended shop ‘Kesar Kissan’ right where the saffron fields end when you are coming from Srinagar. Or, is just before the field begins when you are going from Pahalgaum.
We entered the shop quiet late. At least it seemed like ten when it was only 1845 hours. The moment we entered, we were hit by strong smell of dry fruits and chumma chumma song that was playing in the television. We were loaded with dry fruits, saffron, shilajeet and information about them. We were tired and the whole talk seemed like jabbing. But then miracle happened – we were served the best kawah I have had. Saffron, dry fruits and saccharine cup of tea. With just a cup of kawah, he sold us a bucket!
On the last day of the trip, I got time to meet an old class-mate. I am a Museologist and this frienddid his post-graduation in Museology with me in Delhi. I was meeting him after 8 years. He was back then an Assistant Curator. Today, he is almost the whole and soul of the museum. And I am so proud of him. He was kind enough to show us around the museum. Explain the exquisite and unique collection they have. I was disappointed that this government museum charges Rs 2000/- (Yes, two thousdand rupees) per gallery as photography fee. But when I saw the collection of terracotta tiles, some brilliant sculptures and the interior of the palace, where the museum is housed, I was in full agreement.
My friends and I were regretting for not having enough time in hand to stand in front of every object and admire it to its full potential. In fact we did not have time to cover a lot of places. We missed out on the down-town area and all the old houses and monuments there. We missed out on shopping! Lal Chowk, local stalls and restuarants. The list is long. So, I am going back again.
I know you will not miss out Pahalgaum, Gulmarg and Sonmarg. But it is an advice to spend at least three days in Srinagar itself. Next time I will be only at Srinagar and then go to Jammu by road.

2011-07-28T00:01:00.000-07:00

zindagi hai ye zindagi
kisi gair ki nahi
apni hai magar kuchh kum si sahi
n[a] jaane kyun phir bhi
hai ghulam ye kahin
lagta hai jaise kisi ki adhin hai abhi
jo bhage is se to sharm kaisi?
koyee ilzaam to nahi
koyee qaid nahi koyee gair bhi nahi
apni hi hai ye zindagi
to phir kyun ruke hum
tere dar pe jhuke hum
teri ijazaat zaroori toh nahi
dil hai mera ab bhaa huya
ankhein hai door tak dekhti
kuch nahi hai samne magar
pao[n] mein zajeerein kaisi?
na hi hai rengti bazuyein meri
waqt par teri
hoom mein azaad, suna hi sahi
kyun ki zindagi toh apni hi hai "bande"
kisi gair ki to nahi

Nilanjan Som
27/07/2011
2200 hrs

Quotes by self

2011-03-20T06:54:00.000-07:00

1. Conscience is the honesty of selfishness!

2. ...however, I tried! mati mein mil na paye, ret ka na jane bande kaise boott banaye.

3. I lost all my faith when I found God is u... U saved my life from pain by sticking it at my back! .... to all the fcukers who knows me better than I.

4. ek qaid ek pinjra, magar azadi pe aitbar bhi toh nahi
[19th February 2011; 22:33]

5. yeh saali zindagi, jo do ghari udhaar li toh boli terii hi to hai.
jo tu kare so kare, mujhe parwah nahi iski.
bas dekh zara, kharch na ho jaye sab waqt kahii[n]...
to, baith gaya hum bhi soch ne yehi
ki saali zindagi bitaye to bitaye kaisi
[10th February 2011; 16:23]

6. taqdeer hai maya bhi ye zindagi khud ki nahi... azadi tere qaid se bande ko mumkeen nahi
[27 January 2011; 16:05]

7. na jaane kis subho ka intezar mein raat hai bekarar
kal sehar ye shehar chod denge hum bhi...
[13 May at 17:53]

8. wo jo sanam mere bewafa nikle
hum bhi to saath na nibhaye the
jo door tujhse guzre zamane
tujh ko na bhool paye the
ab wapas teri bahaon mein
......aane ko tamana hai
teri dhup-chaon angiyare mein
paanchii ka koii basera hai
'bande' chal ab laut ke ghar ko
duniya toh wahi basana hai
[21 May 2011; 1445]

2010-05-31T11:49:00.000-07:00

5th July 2005 2000 hrs

Sagor sagor, O anonto sagor
harayiicho prokritir probol rochonaye
bhore uthe mon monushho bedonaye
tsunami holo ki tomar drir naye?

Sagor sagor, O anonto sagor
bohiya cho koto noyoner jol
mitayeyacho moder trishna shokol
aar eyee begeyee shobhota ochol

Sagor sagor, O anonto sagor
keno aaji abar rudhho eyee mon?
tomar bina nahi shrishti shompon
bhenge dao keno maya-r shopon

2010-05-31T11:42:00.000-07:00

5th July 2005; 1730 hrs

anonto gogone ekaki cheye thaki
bashaye phiriya chole bhromor-pakhi
kalo meghe dhakaye neeler phonta
nilanjana-r mukhe nayee kono katha

he aakash, anadi tumi
lukayeechho mone somoyer katha sobi
bishal hridoye tomar gopon koriyacho ki
bolo aamaye, aaj tomare shuni

dur-duranto, deshe-bideshe
ghure berayo na na beshe
jeeboner eyee khela dekhe jao
shokoler mon jene nao

aaji boli tore, mor bedona
aamaye tumi, bhule jeyo na
tomar aamar hridoye shoman
aami je tor bekul moner gaan

kotha aache joto, shure bandhi chol
khule di eyee hridoye chonchol
poncho bhute mishiya shrishti
jeeboner krira koritecho prokriti

What would you change about yourself?

2007-07-08T21:15:00.000-07:00

I know God made me super great and gave me an amazing life. But I was just wondering the other day - if I could, what would I change about myself?
- my job
- my circle of friends
- my address.
Turned out to be quite a long list!

Is it just me or are there other people with such thoughts out there. So, tell me world…
What would you change about yourself?

katha

2007-06-21T05:43:00.000-07:00

na jane kyun khinch le jate hai log
shahar ki aur.
kehte hai, aa baith meri mehfil mein,
dekh in diwaron pe
un tasviron ko,
aur pehchaan unme mujhko zara.

kucch der, tak-ke tasviron ko
yeh soch mein dub jata hai man mera,
kya auro ke rango se
likhi jati hai, apne jiwan ki katha.

Nilanjana Som
21/06/2007

Untitled

2007-06-09T05:17:00.000-07:00

Achchha, aaj sudhu sudhu
Mon keno tomar kotha bhabche?
Keno aaj chobir moton
Chokhe bheshe ashchhe tomar chhaya.
Sriti te harano naam
Bar bar dhe-u-er moton
Uthe ashche mukher goraye?
Oh! Aaj tor shoto botsor hoye che.
Tayee aabar ekbar
Tor joy joy kare
Nebhe poreche shob rasta-ye.
She-I poth harano, drishti hara bhokto.
Geye chole-che tor gun gaan
Jeno unmat atama
Proshonno hoye niye tule che
Aar ekbar hridoye.
Aami o to pagoler moton
Chutilam tahader pichu.
Kintu, e kon pothe
Tumi haath dhore tene niye ele bondhu?
Ekhane to tomar namer
Prodip jolche na!
Roshni ta hole ki kore hobe?
Hothat mukh tipe hashcho je?
Andhokar eyi botobrikher niche
Moddho ratre eyne thatta kocho bujhi?
Ye, amar chokkhu nidrar bhare
Jeno juriye elo
Eiyi alo! Kothaye eyi alo
Lal, nil, holud, shobuj
Na na ronge tim tim
Tarar moton.
Tobe rong bodla cho je.
Eki, e to shob ogroshor
Holo eki dike.
Oiyi dekho, shob rong miliye
Shunnotar moton kalo hoye phut-lo
Bujhlam, eyi shada ar kalo, ek.
Er milone ache aro koto rong
Tumi bujhi eyi shoto botsor
Soto jug dhore rong niye chol kor cho?
Dekho, oyi tomar das
Toma-ke shara dilo.
Na, mati ta ke lal rong
Diye dhuye, kochi shobuj pata chire
Nil jole shob bhashiye
Holud rong-er moton
pulokito ahom kore
tomar sheyi chotto ghorer
bahire pahara dicche.
Achchha, ekhon chol.
Abar giye oyi rong-er
Mishron-ne shada-kalo kaalir
Khela kori.
Ashi. Abar ek jonmer
Bidayi niye nijo grihe
Ghriho-probesh kori

Nilanjana Som
04/06/07

2007-02-18T01:46:00.000-08:00

Ready to take a leap!

COUPLET

2007-01-28T02:11:00.000-08:00

COUPLET

1. Jiwan ke safar mein
Rehguzar kitne mile.
Zingdani tham si gayee.
Umr guzar te liye.
Is khwayeesh mein ki
Aashiyan hamara bhi hoga,
Khwabon ki mehfil mein
Hum, duniya basa liye.

2. Zindagi tujhse shikayat nahi hai
Khuda-i-bandagi ijazaat nahi hai
Ruh ko dharma ke emaan se na band
Aap hi se pehle janaat nahi hai.

3. Hum hi se pehle
Hum hi ke baad
Zindagi aur haansi lagiti hai.
Duniya se aage
Aansman ke paar
Ek umr aur baaki lagti hai 15/ 11/ 06

4. Umr guzri yun tanha
Zindagi ki band dayaanron mein
Shehar sara virana mila
Khud ko jo dhunda galiyaron mein
Aap rote, kabr pe aapne
Baitth virah, tanhanyion mein
Jaan sake na koye man ko bhed
Ruh paya jo rihayee mein 09/ 12/ 06

5.Woh nahi hai hum,
jo rahe lakiro pe chalte hai.
Hum aam insaan hai bande,
hazaaron takdire badal te hai. 05/ 04/ 07

6. In guzarte waqt ke pan-nno mein
Jo dhunda apni kahani
Paya ke kore kagaaz pe
Do bund gira tha paani.
Siha-yi se likhe the jo afsaane
Kuch dhul se gaye the yaado se
Jo kaid tha man ke bhitar
N(a) ho saka ban-yaan alfazon mein.
Hisaab rakha tha jo sanjhon ke
Kho gaya dard ki gehrai-yon mein
Zameen se jo uthe naye daur mein
Gum se rahe roshan rahon pe
Koi lauta de who aan, ye sun zara
Dekha tha jo bite zamaane mein.

7. Lauta de, ye waqt, wo guzra zamana
Diwaron ko chuti haathon mein churiyon ka khanak-na
Bhagte kadmon mein, payal ki cham-cham
Aag si tapti do premiyon ka Milan.
Wo thandak, barish ki pehli bundon ka
Woh kushbu, phagun ke phulon sa
Sarsarahat, pat-jhar ke patton ka
Sangeet si gunj-ti pha-wa-ron ki khanak.
Us roshni mein nahayee chandni raat ka
Ek jhalak lauta de meri yaadon se.
Guzar ja ye shaam, ek aur baar
Mere dayaaron se.
Beth mere paas, kar de yeh ehsaa(n)
Phir likh ja aakhri lafz
Tere mere afsaane ke.

8. Ek khwab dekha ese
zindaagi simat gayee
jo neend se jage
tamam umr guzar gayee

Nilanjana Som
10/01/07

9. zer-e-lab pe hai jo, hayaa hai hamari
jhuki palkon mein chupa rakha hai mohabbat tumhari.

Nilanjana Som
23/06/2007

10. Khubsurat ek kavita ki tarha,
suna gaya jo khhud hi samajh na saka;
Sunaye apni katha jahan,
milte nahi hai shabd wahan!

Nilanjana Som
26/07/07

11. sang beith khudse jo karne lagein guftagu,
shabd aur khayal mein faasla na raha;
lekin kyun terii mehfil mein bande
har shaks bezubaan ayaa

Nilanjana Som
03/08/07

12. Hai khuda ki kya tujhe zaroorat, tu aap hi insaan haie bande!

Nilanjana Som
11/09/07

13. Ho falak ya zamin.
Ruh ko nahin hai bandish.
Yeh awara musafir hai.
Har pal milti-badlti hai jiski manzil.

Nilanjana Som
25/09/07

14. Kuchh wo kahe
kuchh hum kahe
ek hasrat rah gayee
dil ke the itne kareeb
judaii gum na de saki

Nilanjana Som
15/10/2008

15. Wo ajnabee ko jo dekhte the roz
ek khwaeesh thii kii iltejah yeh kare
ek bar aankhon ki chahat ko
lafzoin mein kuchh bayaan kare

Nilanjana Som
15/10/2008

16. N[a] jane kaun raaste mile
kaun mein bichchre
magar har mor pe
manzil ko pa liye.

Nilanjana Som
15/10/2008

17. mazak achcha tha.... apne haq pe
taaj-poshi kisi aur ka dekhe
hum dekhe to 'bande' kya dekhe
tamasha humara khamoshee se dekhe.......

Nilanjana Som
01/04/2008

18. 'BAHANA'

Ab aaye to aaye
maut bhii n[a] aaye
kii zindagi ko bhi hum se
mohabbat nahii hai.
shikayat hai hum pe aitbaar nahii haii.
koii gum n[a] kare 'bande' pe yaaron
kii hum ko bhi unkii
zaroorat nahii hai

Nilanjana Som
01/04/2008

Zindagii guzre tanha hi guzre
rahm-o-karam ke mohtaz nahii
tere saath ke liye parchayee ko chore
itne bhi hum, be-gairat nahi.........

Nilanjana Som
01/04/2008

Ram-Rahim Ek Hi Hai Re 'Bande'
Ye Duniya Dhokha, Khub De Chali
Hum Se Puche Ye Khuda Ke Bande
Insaan Rahna Aab Mumkinn Nahi

Nilanjana Som
28/06/2009

Iss Tarah Dhokha Khaya
Ki Muskurahat Se Chipa Na Sake
Hum Chale The Apnane Ye 'Bande'
Iman Jinke The Ruthe Huye
Khaiir Afsos Nahi Unke Jane Ka
Ki Ek Aur Aitbar Pe Bharosa Karne Hum Chale..

Nilanjana Som
28/06/2009

hum toh jhoom te hai khud ke hi nashe mein,
mehfil mein tum ne yunn hi badnam kiya

Nilanjana Som
June 2009

khoya toh jana, [jo] pane ki aas na thi; bande ko wo hi fakir kar gaya...
Nilanjana Som
24th June 2010

gar mein kaafir
tu mussaim
mere mandir mein boot apna bana gaya
khair mauji hai "bande"
ibadaat tera bhi karlenge hum
Nilanjan Som
27th July 2011
2145 hrs

MEHERANGARH

2006-11-13T23:38:00.000-08:00

I cannot describe Jodhpur as a tourist, as I never was or will be an outsider for that place. Not expecting more than rock and sand when I first landed, I lived there for a year-and-a-half! I worked in the Meherangarh Fort museum, away from the urban lifestyle of Delhi, the capital of world’s largest democratic country.
My accommodation was arranged at the base of the fort; the palace was at my back and below the fort complex was the old part of the city, lit like zillions of stars at night. It sounds like I am taking you through my personal space. I have lived and worked there, strolled in the fort garden, gone up the ramp to look at the city below or sat on my terrace gazing at the stars above. The Halloween feel on no moon or sudden bark of dogs in the middle of my sleep or the musical fan in the tranquillity of night going cham-cham! But the best part was during full moon when the whole fort was bathed in moon-light.
The fort as it stands today is a vertical building of palaces at various floors, a long fort wall and two fort entrances – ‘Jey Pol’ (Victory Gate; ‘Jey’ is a Hindi word) made by Maharaja Man Singh in 1808 is the main gateway and, ‘Fateh Pol’ (Victory Gate; Fateh is an Urdu word) leading to the old city was built by Maharaja Ajit Singh in 1707.
The foundation of the city was laid by Rao Jodha in 1459 CE, after whom the city was named Jodhpur. The old city was also established at the same time and, the brahmans (priestly class) were settled there. Even today, sixty percent of the residents are brahmans and so, famously known as Brahmapuri. The houses here are painted blue - indigo mixed with white-wash, a modern-day practice to keep insects out and, the house cool
I often ventured out to explore the old city and each time could not stop myself from laughing at the sight. Stray cows are a common sight in every Indian city, what probably be not, is foreigners running after them (to photograph) with the expression on their face ‘the famous Indian cow!’
I too faced curious looks of the locals every time I passed those streets as women do not wander alone in that part of the country.
Today, Brahmapuri is a crumbling dirty town fighting the problem of organic growth like most cities of India. Though originally, Jodhpur was well a planned city divided into various quarters with proper roads connecting them. The broad main roads led to the slightly narrower secondary bazaar streets to the narrowest of all, the tertiary residential streets with underground sewage system. The houses were built so as to cast their shadows on the street, keeping it cool and shaded for those who dared to brave the desert heat of Rajasthan. Brahmapuri and the rest of the old part of Jodhpur still maintain that distinct feature.
Each gully had a chabutra, where the men gathered to gossip and play cards or chaupar (Indian dice game). The colonies are named after the occupation of the residents or the place from where they had migrated, like Jaisalmerwalaon ki gully. Like the rest of Rajasthan, Jodhpur is also about colour and sand-dust. On either side of the gully are colourful shops of haldi, mirch-dhaniya-garam masala powder, leheriya sarees, batik dupattas, men dyeing yards of cloth, jutti, puppet, wooden camel and horse. This ends at the crowded bazaar of the Sardar Market around the Clock Tower, outside which, begins the new city.
Since 1459, the city has expanded from north to south and risen by approximately 8 meters now touching the base of the fort towards the Fateh Pol. A technical detail, forts were always built on a hill top and the city in the valley around it. Depending on the history of development of ancient towns over a span of 400-500 years, the old parts of some cities like Jodhpur have seen an upward vertical expansion while in cases like Gwalior, the old city has spread outwards but not upward.
The fort today is accessed by the visitors from Jey Pol. The first stop on that side of the city is Jaswant Thada, the Rathore memorial. Built in the memory of Maharaja Jaswant Singh II, this royal cremation ground has chattris (cenotaph) of the royal family. Made of Makrana marble, the primary cenotaph looks beautiful when the sunlight penetrates it creating a beautiful play of light and shade.
Here I would like to mention, Jodhpur was the capital of the former Marwar State ruled by the Rathore dynasty. Today it is one of the most urban districts of Rajasthan. It offers some amazing places to stay. One such place being the 19th century Bal Samand Palace (probably built even earlier), it is now converted into a hotel and has the most romantic garden restaurant. In fact, garden restaurant is probably one of the highlights of Jodhpur. Every other night-restaurant is in the garden of an old haveli (mansion) usually offering a wonderful view of either the Meherangarh fort or the last palace of India, the Umaid Bhawan.
This 20th century palace is the resident of Maharaja Gaj Singh II and his royal family. A large section of the palace was converted into a five star hotel, now managed by the Taj Group and, a small part houses a museum. Often, many tourists complain that Umaid Bhawan is not as grand as the palaces in Europe. I would like to point out that this palace was designed in the 1920s with a different appreciation and understanding of architecture compared with 15th – 18th century European palaces and Indian forts. It was built to employ the people of Marwar during the drought years – part charity and partly a design to build a new house.
Umaid Bhawan Palace echoes the appreciation early 20th century Europeans had for Eastern and African art and their effort to amalgamate the occident and the orient. It reflects the influence of Buddhist philosophy, Hindu mythology, Greek aesthetic, Chinese mythical animals and the contemporary Art Deco.
Speaking of art, Jodhpur has a beautiful collection of paintings mostly commissioned by Maharaja Man Singh (r. 1803 – 1843). He was a devotee of the Shaivite Naths unlike other Marwar rulers who worshipped Lord Krishna. He built a temple dedicated to his Nath Guru, the Mahamandir (the Great Temple) as it is called – has beautiful wall paintings of the legendary Nath Guru, Jallandarnath practicing ‘haath-yoga’. It is a beautiful temple in the middle of the Nath’s residential area. This is the only part of the city where I could see remnants of the past and felt nostalgic. Old jalidaar jharokhas (perforated and carved windows) looking lost in concrete buildings, carved railings with wet cloths drying on them, carved doors and windows with flaking wood and once in a while, peeping old bricks probably have been there for two hundred years waiting to crumble down any moment.
This sad state is true for any old Indian city. William Dalrymple makes the same observation about Lucknow, fast losing its ‘tehzeeb’ (conduct). I have been there and raise my hand in agreement. What probably is worse, when a city loses its face, its people, its tradition and habits and its individuality, like pigeon flying, kite flying, kids running up and down the narrow gullies, women getting together outside someone’s or anyone’s door and gossiping.
I often pondered over my coffee at Café Coffee Day (the only coffee house in the entire city!), whether it was justified the way I used scorn the royalty – ‘The page three people!’ Just a couple of months back I was watching a debate ‘We The People’ on NDTV, whether these yester-year royalties should still use their titles? I say why not ‘democrats.’ It is so easy for us, living in large cities all our lives, reading ‘Page 3’ and then dismissing them as the ‘pleasure seeking rich.’ Maharaja Gaj Singh II would be a perfect example of a man with vision and compassion for his people. The family not only undertakes charity work but has put Jodhpur on the international tourist map.
In the last 30 years, from the verge of losing all his property, he has managed to keep it all as well earn profit. As an unbiased judge who has seen it from the inside, I would say it is an effort worthy of respect. Today Jodhpur is a hub for international activities on the cultural circuit. Meherangarh Fort has earned recognition from UNSECO, participated in international exhibitions, is the first private museum to hold an independent exhibition of its collection outside India, the first Fort-museum to introduce audio-guides… the list is long.
This is all I can pen down about my stay; let the rest stay in my memory. These experiences are beyond words and one cannot live through words lest it’s not enough. I often visit those corners and transport myself to my apartment sipping cold wine in winter under the open sky on the terrace, singing to myself.

PONDICHERRY

2006-09-22T02:14:00.000-07:00

I travelled to Pondicherry six months after the south coast of India was hit by a Tsunami, to get away from our daily busy and boring life in the hot summer of June. The idea was simply to HOLIDAY!

We had worked out a tight schedule, four places - Chennai, Pondi city, Tanjore and Rameswaram - great distances, not well connected, and with lots to explore. But we wanted to make the most of our trip and why say no to the challenge? Or so we thought. Once we got to Pondi city on the second day, we convinced ourselves to stay therefor four days!

Away from the hustle and bustle of Chennai, Pondi is connected to the state capital via the East Coast Road, which runs all along the Bay of Bengal, The small city famous for its French connection, is one of the four districts of the Union Territory of Pondicherry (the others are strangely spread out: Karaikal in Tamil Nadu, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, and Mahe in Kerala).

Pondicherry has a long history. But the city till date retains the flavour of its colonisers. Not many know that it was the Dutch, who drew the original city plan, based on which the French built their city – what is now called the 'French Quarter' in the east divided by the Grand Canal from the 'Tamil Quarter' on the west.

It is fruitless to visit any town/ city without an understanding of its cultural context, especially if one is an art lover and, being a Bong, it is utmost necessary. You will hardly find one from my community who is not over informed before they visit any place.

So, our Bengalee genes and (art) historic mind took us straight to the INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage) office to collect interesting information about the city and understand why this particular 'Indian' city was so clean?!

Over the last few decades the city has been under constant developmental pressure, leading to the organic growth of modern concrete shops amongst the older houses thereby ruining the charm of the place. The Government of Pondicherry undertook a project to maintain the 'Pondicherryness of the city' under the Asian Urbs Programme in partnership with INTACH and, two model cities, Urbino (Italy) and Villeneuve-sur-lot (France) and, recognised the Tamil and French quarters as 'Conservation Zone.'. It is one of the few cities in India that is being promoted as a ‘heritage city.’

The 'French connection' is not the city’s only claim to fame. The Aurobindo Ashram is a major highlight as well. It is a definite stop for all the troubled souls, who rinse their soul in the serenity of the Ashram. We stopped because of the Bengalee connection though, not because we are poor souls.

Travellers like us, who cannot spend hours meditating, can stop to buy incenses, perfumes and candles sold at various shops. In fact, they are easily available anywhere in the city – kiosks, outside temples and vendors. My only claim to please and reach the GOD (their's or mine not sure).

Speaking of Peace, try and find accommodation by the sea. When at five o'clock in the morning you hear the waves crashing against the bedrock, one has to fold hands and pray, not another Tsunami. As me, just before leaving I read in the newspaper that a bigger Tsunami is expected by 2007.

Next night I decided to offer my prayers to the Sea God! I sat at the hotel garden facing the sea and managed an hour of spiritual experience to feel the vastness of this water 'element/ bhuta.' I felt like a mini-Krishna; the whole Bay of Bengal inside me. Now I understand how Swami Vivekananda could stand on a foot!

On day two, my friend and I rode the State tourism bus to see Pondicherry. This included a year and a half old temple dedicated to Hanuman-Varaha-Narasimha-Eagle-Kalki built in cement (a small zoo from Heaven), Pondicherry’s famous handmade paper industry, beaches, Matri Mandir, kiosks selling products made of sea-shells, wood, glass to diamonds and, the back waters.

Four days in hand but the essentials of the place covered in just a day gave us some time to kill. At night we decided to try French cuisine - I will not recommend it. So next night, we went to a street in the French quarter with a French name but had Indian food.

To make life easier for at least the tourists, the streets have both French as well as either an Indian or English names. In fact, Pondi is so far the only Indian city I have visited that has proper signage. But they still left me confused! Luckily I had my friend as a navigator.

Continuing with the cuisine, what was surprising was the Vietnamese connection. In brief, many expelled Vietnamese settled in Pondicherry around 1771. Also, many Pondi residents fought in the Indochina region, to restore the royal family who were ousted by the rebels. There is in fact a legion hall for the retired soldiers - Le Foyer De Soldat - to honour the soldiers who waged wars on behalf of France in Europe and the colonies.

In the evening we decided to take a walk in the botanical garden that has the strangest (exotic) names. The garden has a musical fountain, but I can’t guarantee it works. The gardener told us it was laid out in the French style.

If the garden has over 1500 species of plants, the town has over 150 museums, churches, temples, and mosques. Surprisingly there is a police museum too. Mentioning the Pondi police department, I was impressed with their management and efficiency. One realises particularly as a tourist in the evening when the entire city gets out to the Beach Road to take a stroll and enjoy the fresh breeze from the sea. The traffic is well managed, in fact no traffic movement is allowed for sometime on that road, the police are quite vigilant to stop hooliganism of any sort and the safety of the public.

On the last day we stopped at a few to curio shops to check the South Indian style furniture, beds and settees of the Malabar Coast of Indian workmanship and French fashion, metal sculptures and beautiful lamps, all way beyond what our pockets could afford. But I did take every visiting card, just in case!

Pondicherry is a place where you cannot go just as a tourist. In fact, I tried checking the property price; in case I want to settle down later! It is a resort to holiday in its true sense. A place to wine, dine, shop and walk on the streets of the French Quarter. And if you want a taste of Tamil culture just cross the Grand Canal – without a bridge or a boat! Visit the numerous places of worship if you are religious or even otherwise to appreciate the architecture, the amalgamation of the French and the Tamil.

Four days, and we knew each and every street and food joint. We went to holiday and that's what we did. If one needs to holiday, he/ she needs to do it the right way and at the right place!

Furniture Glossary

2006-04-14T01:08:00.000-07:00

ADAM STYLE - British neoclassical style that predominated from about 1760 to 1790. It was established by advertisement architect Robert Adam and his brother, James. A reaction to the more fanciful rococo style of the 1750s, it is characterized by slender, graceful lines, refined shapes, and restrained ornamentation.

ARMCHAIR - Seating that has both a backrest and armrests (see bergère and fauteuil).

ARMOIRE - Tall, upright cupboard or wardrobe that does not contain drawers and may or may not contain shelves. It closes with a door or doors at the front.

ART DECO - Derived from an historic Paris exposition in 1925 that celebrated the marriage of art and industry in denunciation of Art Nouveau. It introduced simple, streamlined forms that were majestically interpreted in exotic woods and materials. American designers of the 1930s took this look further, using asymmetry, arcs, sleek lines, and geometric shapes not only in furniture, but also in architecture and a wide range of household objects.

ART NOUVEAU - Style based, literally, on the "new art" of Europe in about 1875. Flowing, nearly freeform shapes from nature were carved and painted on furniture. An elongated, slightly curved line that ends in a more abrupt, nearly whiplike second curve is its most characteristic design.

ARTS AND CRAFTS - Both a furniture style and a movement that emerged in England toward the end of the 19th century in reaction to the excesses of the Victorian era and the Gay Nineties. It glorified craftsmanship in deliberately simple shapes with exposed joinery and spare ornamentation. William Morris and John Ruskin were among its proponents in England. Based on their beliefs and designs, Gustav Stickley pioneered a similar movement in America, before it waned with the onset of World War I.

BALL-AND-CLAW FOOT - Carved-foot motif that depicts a crane's claw gripping a ball or an egg. While it is most associated with 18th-century English and American furniture, it originated in China as a dragon's claw clutching either a crystal ball or a pearl or other jewel.

BALUSTER - Small turned, square, or flat column that supports a rail; also used to form chair backs.

BAROQUE - Name given to the 17th-century exaggerated style that originated in Rome. Massive and heavily decorated, it is an extension of ornamental Renaissance style and is characterized by a lack of restraint manifested in large, irregular, even fantastic curves, twisted columns, elaborate scrolls, and oversize moldings.

BASSINET - Bed for a baby, originally basket shaped.

BENTWOOD - Wood that is bent while wet into curved chair parts. Michael Thonet (1796 - 1871) of Vienna is the best-known producer of bentwood furniture and a pioneer in mass production. Bentwood is not related to molded plywood, a 20th-century innovation.

BERGÈRE - Armchair in which the sides, from the seat to the armrests, as well as the seat and back, are upholstered.

BIEDERMEIER - A furniture style of German derivation in the first half of the 19th century and named after "Papa Biedermeier," a cartoon character that represented the well-to-do, uncultured middle class. The furniture is often plain and blocklike in form and borrows freely from many styles, particularly French Empire, adding strength and comfort at the expense of grace and refinement.

BLOCK FOOT - The square end of an untapered leg.

BOMBÉ - Chest or commode with a bulge or swollen, convex shape on the front and sides.

BUFFET - Sideboard or "dresser" for the dining room, designed to hold platters and serving dishes.

CABRIOLE - Curved shape that resembles the leg of an animal, such as a goat ("cabriole" in Spanish). Its double curve turns in at the "knee" and flares out at the foot. It came into widespread use in the late seventeenth century.

CAMEL BACK - Triple-curved chairback frame with a raised central curve. A pierced-shield design, such as honeysuckle or anthemion, spans the back from the seat to the high curve.

CAMPAIGN FURNITURE - Portable furniture that folds, collapses, or is made of flat components that can be assembled or disassembled. It also often has handles. Initiated for military use, it is most associated with colonialism.

CARD TABLE - Folding table that originated in late-17th-century England to accommodate the nobility's passion for gambling.

CHAISE LONGUE - Literally, "long chair," a sofa or daybed with an upholstered back, designed for reclining. Today it is usually a single piece, but early versions encompassed a bergère with a large stool or two armchairs and a center stool.

CHANNEL BACK - A chair back with grooves or fluting as decoration.

CHESTERFIELD - Overstuffed couch or sofa with upholstered ends and no exposed wood. Back and arms are usually of one continuous curve.

CHEST-ON-CHEST - Chests of drawers in two sections, one on top of the other.

CHINA CABINET - Cabinet with glass fronts, created to display and store fine china. The sides may or may not be of glass.

CHINOISERIE - an artistic style which reflects Chinese influence and is characterized through the use of elaborate decoration and intricate patterns. Its popularity peaked around the middle of the 18th century.

CHIPPENDALE - English rococo style of the mid-18th century, named after Thomas Chippendale. The graceful proportions and delicate decoration of this furniture were refined adaptations from late Baroque, rococo, Louis XV, and Georgian periods. Two variations, Chippendale Gothic and Chinese Chippendale, attest to the famous cabinetmaker's influence and ability to borrow styles.

COLONIAL - In America this style dominated from the earliest settlements to the Revolution of 1776. Here as elsewhere it represents styles that are rooted in mother countries but adapted to the materials and uses of the colonies, primarily Africa, India, the Americas, and the Caribbean.

COMMODE - Initially a French chest of drawers on legs; now loosely defined as any type of low chest containing doors or drawers.

CONSOLE - Term originally applied to a bracket that supported cornices or shelves and later used to describe tables that were affixed to a wall and supported with legs only at the front. Today it describes all types of tables used along a wall.

CREDENZA - Serving table with a cupboard below the surface. It originated in the 15th century; in the 16th century, an upper, recessed tier was added.

DAYBED - Any type of elongated seating, including the chaise longue, designed for resting rather than sleeping. It usually has a raised end.

DIRECTOIRE - Style of French furniture that spanned the end of the French Revolution and Napoleon's conquest in 1799. It is named for the Directory government that replaced Louis XVI and called for designs of smaller scale and less ostentation along with the elimination of regal references.

DROP LEAF - Hinged flap or panel that can be raised, then supported in order to increase the surface area of a table. The term now applies to such a table.

ELIZABETHAN - Large furniture of severe form and style that emerged initially during the reign of Elizabeth I in England from 1558 to 1603. It was revived in the 1820s and is characterized by heavy carving as well as massive size.

EMPIRE - Neoclassical style dictated by Napoleon in France between 1804 and 1815. It is based on imperial forms from Greece, Rome, and Egypt and was designed to draw parallels between Napoleon's realm and the great ancient empires. Furniture was consciously majestic, made of rich woods and metals, and decorated with emblems, including bees, crowns, laurel leaves, mythological figures, and the letter N.

ÉTAGÈRE - A series of open shelves supported by slender columns and used to display curios.

FAUTEUIL - Upholstered armchair, originally French, with open sides (see bergère). FEDERAL - American furniture style from 1780, following the Revolution, to 1830. It began by echoing and often amalgamating the neoclassical styles of such English masters as Adam, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton, and later took on influences from France. Duncan Phyfe is among its most notable craftsmen. It is refined and rectilinear, often with veneering and inlay. Brass feet and casters and brass-ring drawer and door pulls are common on casegoods.

GEORGIAN - Refers to furniture styles that evolved during the long reign of England's three Georges, I, II, and III, from 1714 to 1795. At first it retained earlier Queen Anne forms, with an increasing use of decoration and diverse ornamentation. Popular motifs were eagles' heads and claws, leaves, satyrs' masks, and lions' heads and claws.

GOTHIC - Late medieval furniture forms derived from the cathedrals of Europe. Heavy, large pieces were generously carved in architectural motifs. Chests banded with decorative wrought iron, large trestle tables, and such symbols of status as "beds of estate" and X-framed chairs are characteristic.

HEPPLEWHITE - Style named for cabinetmaker George Hepplewhite, whose furniture drawings were published after his death in 1786. They exemplified the Adam and neoclassical styles, but had slimmer, lighter lines and less angular shapes. Hepplewhite often used the Prince of Wales's feathers motif on chair backs.

HIGHBOY - Tall chest of drawers, usually consisting of two sections. An upper chest sits on either a tablelike structure or a lowboy with long legs. (See chest-on-chest).

INLAY - Design formed of contrasting woods, grains, metal, tortoiseshell, mother of pearl, or other material inserted to be flush with the furniture surface.

INTERNATIONAL STYLE - Modern, functional furniture developed in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s. Its most important origin is Germany's Bauhaus, with such practitioners as Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Simple lines and an absence of decoration are its hallmarks. New materials, such as chrome and glass, along with factory production, signify its departure from earlier furniture traditions.

JACOBEAN - Style of English furniture during the first half of the 17th century, named for King James I, who reigned from 1603 to 1625. Italianate carving, especially cupboards with arabesques, and the common use of upholstery typify the robust and comfortable style, which continued through the reign of Charles I, from 1625 to 1649.

KLISMOS - Ancient Greek chair form with saber-shaped legs, splayed at the front and back. The back legs continue up to support a shoulder-high, curved back.

LOUIS XIV - Baroque furniture that accompanied the reign of Louis XIV in France from 1643 to 1715 was a somewhat reserved version of that style, featuring modest rather than exaggerated curves. Furnishings and decoration reflected formal grandeur. Decorative motifs, often boldly carved, included beasts from mythology, garlands of fruit and flowers, animal forms, and the fleur-de-lis in particular.

LOUIS XV - The more feminine rococo style evolved during Louis XV's reign, from 1732 to 1774. It was exemplified by diminutive scale, rounded edges, flowing lines, and freeform ornamentation. Oriental lacquer and porcelain plaques were sometimes incorporated into veneers.

LOUIS XVI - Neoclassical style came to the fore during the reign of Louis XVI, from 1774 to 1792, and with this revival, furniture became more rectilinear and geometric. Cabriole legs, for example, gave way to cylindrical or square ones. Also in reaction to earlier rococo styles, decoration, though opulent, was restrained. Floral themes, for instance, were replaced by architectural motifs.

LOVE SEAT - Double chair or small sofa, originally associated with Queen Anne style.

LOWBOY - English low chest or table with drawers.

MARQUETRY - Inlay of contrasting wood, inserted flush with the furniture's surface.

MISSION - Simple, rectilinear furniture, primarily of oak, in which the construction techniques are often exposed. It represents America's version of the English Arts and Crafts movement and is principally associated with Gustav Stickley and the Roycroft Community of upstate New York in the early 20th century, from which it spread to other regions.

MODERNE - American style of furniture in the 1930's that derived from Europe's Art Deco and International Style. It is characterized by polished surfaces, sleek shapes, curves that contrast with straight lines, and asymmetry, and utilized new materials and manufacturing processes adapted from industrial design. The architecture of skyscrapers was also influential.

NEOCLASSICAL STYLE - Revivals of interest in ancient Greek, Roman, and Egyptian themes, which occurred during the Renaissance, Adam, and Empire eras, and especially in the late 18th century, when appetites for it were whetted by archeological discoveries.

NEO-GOTHIC - Revivals of aspects of Gothic detailing, which took place in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the former, circa 1745, references to Gothic arches and tracery were applied to rococo furniture. Later, Gothic ornamentation was added to neoclassical forms.

OTTOMAN - Upholstered bench or seat with no arms or back, named after the Turkish influence of the early 18th century.

PALLADIAN STYLE - Based on designs by mid-16th-century Italian architect Andrea Palladio, which featured very large and dramatic pediments, cornices, and sculptural decorations of eagles, scallop shells, acanthus leaves, and other motifs, rendered in massive scale. Windows and columns in this style carry the name today.

PARQUETRY - Mosaic of wood pieces in a geometric pattern, such as herringbone.

PEMBROKE - Small rectangular drop-leaf table with a drawer, named after England's Earl of Pembroke, circa 1771.

PROVINCIAL - Furniture from the hinterlands that is inspired by designs from the major centers of a country but adapted to local materials, tastes, and ways of living. Location not only influenced alterations in design and materials, but also spawned useful pieces, such as the cobbler's bench, that were not needed by the cities' royals or nobles.

QUEEN ANNE - Style that arose in England during the reign of Queen Anne, from 1702 to 1714, in a break from French influences. Veneering in walnut was popular, and gentle, subtle curves added grace. This period marked the development of secretaries and china cupboards and a maturing of the cabriole leg, serpentine arms, and soft, rounded frames and shapes.

RÉCAMIER - Daybed shaped like a Roman reclining couch. It was named after Madame Récamier of Parisian society in the early 1800's and has a curved headboard and shorter curved footboard.

RÉGENCE STYLE - Spanned the transition between the death of Louis XIV in 1715 and the ascension of Louis XV in 1723, when France was ruled by a regent. The furniture style was a parallel transition from massive straight lines to graceful curves.

REGENCY - Neoclassical style of British furniture that was popular during the first four decades of the 19th century. It is named for the Prince of Wales, who, as regent, stepped in to rule from 1811 to 1820 because his father, King George III, went insane. It spawned adaptations and faithful reproductions of Greek and Roman furniture, such as the saber-legged Klismos chair, and coincided with Directoire and Empire styles in France.

ROCOCO - Style of 18th-century European furniture made of rich woods with elaborate scrollwork and curved forms. Its origins are from the Régence style of France, and its influence was widespread. It is considered a daintier, more refined version of earlier Baroque style.

SECRETARY - Slant-top desk on top of a chest of drawers that became popular in America and England during the 18th and 19th centuries.

SETTEE - An elongated armchair that accommodates two or more people. It was developed in the 17th century, was often upholstered, and predates the sofa.

SHAKER - Furniture designed and made by Shakers, an American religious, communal sect founded in the 19th century, that believed beauty derived from usefulness and impractical objects were sinful. The unadorned furniture features clean, spare, elegant lines, exemplified in the slim, tall, Shaker ladder-back chair.

SHERATON - British neoclassical style named after Thomas Sheraton, who published designs in the early 1700s that reinterpreted Adam style by diminishing ornamentation. Sheraton pieces are more delicate than Adam, yet more severe and linear than Hepplewhite. Many contain inlay, painted decoration, and bands of contrasting veneer. Openwork with urn, swag, or lyre motifs is characteristic of his chair backs.

SIDEBOARD - Table with a wide drawer at the center flanked by drawers or cupboards on the sides and made to be used against a dining room wall for storing and serving food.

SIDE CHAIR - Small-scale, armless chair, designed to stand against a wall when not in use.

SLEIGH BED - Bed with a high headboard and slightly lower footboard. It resembles the shape of a horse-drawn sleigh, and it was developed in America in the early 19th century.

SLIPPER CHAIR - High-backed, usually upholstered chair with short legs, developed in America in the 18th century for bedrooms.

SOFA - An extension of the armchair, less formal and longer than a settee. It was developed in the mid-18th century and became very popular by the early 1800s when it gained springs to aid comfort.

SOFA TABLE - Long, narrow table with drawers and drop-leaf ends, typically used to store and use gameboards.

SPINDLE - Slim length of turned wood, often used in a series for chair backs.

STICKLEY - Furniture designed and built by Gustav Stickley, who pioneered the American Arts and Crafts movement and promulgated its principals of clean, unadorned, durable furniture through publication of The Craftsman in 1901.

TAMBOUR DESK - Rolltop desk that is most notable for its use of a flexible, draw-down cover made of "tambours," a succession of narrow strips of flat wood glued to stiff cloth. The edges fit in grooves at the edges of the top frame of the desk, allowing the length of tambours to slide up and down.

VENEER - Thin sheet of fine wood or other material attached on top of and flush with an underlying layer that is usually of lesser quality, for decoration. As a verb: the act of adding this type of decoration. (See inlay, marquetry, and parquetry).

VICTORIAN - Style named for England's Queen Victoria, who reigned from 1837 to 1901, applied to English and American furniture of that time, particularly in the mid-years of her reign. That furniture takes its cue from and elaborates on rococo and Louis XV style, with exaggerated curves and size, lush upholstery (often in complicated curves and shapes), ellipses, spools, and carvings. Among its hallmarks is horsehair cushioning.

VITRINE - Cabinet with a glass door. The sides and top may also be of glass, and it is designed to store and display china and curios.

WARDROBE - Tall, upright cabinet with a door or doors. Designed for storing clothing, it sometimes also contains a chest of drawers.

WILLIAM & MARY - Named for the joint reign of England's King William III and Queen Mary II in the late 17th century, this style carried William's Dutch influence, particularly in floral marquetry and oyster veneer. It was elegant in scale and shape. In America, it represented a provincial or country American Baroque style.

WINDSOR CHAIR - Style of chair that originated near Windsor castle circa 1710 and is thought to have originated with wheel-makers. It has a bentwood back frame, usually with a chair back that has a pierced slat flanked by spindles. WING CHAIR - High-back easy chair with upholstered "wings" or panels that project from both sides of the back and curve down to upholstered arms.

Glossary - Indian Mythology

2006-04-13T22:39:00.000-07:00

Abhay-mudra: a gesture (mudra) which dispels fear
Abja: ‘Lotus’, which is born or produced from water. Padma; Nilotpal
Adisakti: the primeval sakti.
Aditi: Name Of The Vedic Divine Mother Goddess who embodies the primordial vastness of Universal Nature symbolized
Adya sakti: primary sakti or primordial active female principle
Agama: a collection of traditional religious teaching contained in non-Vedic texts. The Agamas are the basic texts of Tantrism
Agni-Durga: an eight-armed three-eyed form of Durga.whose emblems are discus, sword, shield, noose and goad. One hand is in varada pose.
Aksamala: a rosary of string god beads which may consist of pearls, bones, dried seeds. Berries and skulls for demonic rites.
Amba: Mother. An aspect of Parvati. She carries a child (bala) water-vessel, lotus and noose.
Ambika: a Hindu goddess often identified with Amba. She is the Jaina counterpart of Durga. Ambika is also distinct from Parvati, Durga and Kali, when she is one of the central Sakta Cult deities.
Amrita: Immortal. The ambrosia, the food or drink of the gods. According to the Atharvaveda, amrita was produced during the cooking of the sacrificial rice-mess.
Anada: ‘Joy’, ‘happiness’ epithets of Siva and Balarama.
Andhakasura: the ausra who embodies darkness (tams) or spiritual blindness so holding all creatures in thrall.
Annapurna: filled with (or giver of) food. Name of a gentle form of Parvati who averts famine.
Aparajita: a name of Durga whose mount is lion. Her emblem includes sword, shield, snake, Pinaka, arrow, and the snake Vasuki.
Apsara: going in the waters. Seductive eternally young nymphs, the celestial dancers of the gods.
Apsmara: a demon-dwari personifying the evils of ignorance
Ardhalaksmihari: part Lakshmi and part Hari (Visnu).
Ardhanarisvara: a gentle (saumya) aspect of Siva in androgynous form which denotes the inseparability of all male and female forms the cause of creating in the world.
Astasvasaras: Eight Sisters – Parvati, Uma, Gauri and Jagadambi, the gentle aspect and; Kali, Durga, Chamunda and Mahesvari, the terrific forms.
Asura: Demons.
Avatara: Descent a divine incarnation which descends to earth in bodily form to protect gods, priests holds men and all creatures from evil and to safeguards the teaching.by a cow

GLOSSARY

Bhadra: Auspicious. A name of the goddess Laksmi who is depicted on a lotus plinth a characteristic of many deities
Bhadra-Kali: Originally a nature goddess later adopted by Saivas. She emerged from Uma’s wealth when her husband Siva was insulted by her father, Daksa. She carries 12 weapons
Bhagvati: The lady – a benign aspect of Parvati (Devi) who embodies the combined emerges of Siva, Visnu and Brahma.
Bhairavi: Terror or the power to cause terror. Name of a goddess, the sixth Mahavidya.
Bharati: A minor Vedic goddess who represent eloquence and hence is often associated with the Goddess Sarasvati.
Bhogasakti: Name of the Sakti of Siva when in his Sada Siva aspect.
Bhudevi: Second wife of Visnu, personifying the earth
Bhuta: A term for the five elements, Rudra is called Bhutesvara, Lord of all elements.
Bilva or Bel: The sacred wood-apple tree regarded as a vegetal form of Siva.
Bindu: Drop-point limit. Dot denoting the beginning of manifestation from the undifferentiated or non-manifestated state which is the productive point of potentiality – void (sunya)
Brahman (neuter): The ultimate substratum of the forces of the universe, the self-existent which is quality-less (aguavat). Brahman is the essence in all things and hence cannot be an object of knowledge, only the deities minor manifestations of Brahman can be approached by man.
Brahman: Brahma’s egg. Name of the cosmic golden egg that circumscribes the totality of manifestation and from which Brahma was born. It is divided into 21 regions, the earth being 7th from the top.
Brahmani Or Brahmi: Another name of Sarasvati, a consort of Brahma. Brahmi is a non Vedic goddess later adopted as Brahma’s sakti. She is included among the saptamatrikas.
Brahmapasa: Brahma’s noose. Name of Brahma’s mythical weapon

Chamunda: One of the most terrifying forms of goddess Durga who symbolizes universal death and destructionas well as delusion (moha) or malignity (paisunya).
Chanda: An Aspect Of Mahisasurmardini And Also One Of The Nine Durgas. Her Emblems Include An Elephant Goad, Discus, A Large And A Small Drum, Mirror, Bow And Arrow, Mace, Sword, Shield, Hammer, Axe, Spear, Conch, Trident, Vajra Etc. Her Mudra Is Abhaya
Charka: Discus or wheel. One of Visnu’s attributes. It represents power and protection.
Chaturbhuja: Four armed. A number of divinities are shown with forearms which signify their divinity and superhuman powers. The arms also denote the four quarters of the universe.She is also one of the Saptamatrika

Chandanayika: Name of one of the Nine Durgas
Chandarupa: Name of one of the Nine Durgas
Chandavati: Name of one of the Nine Durgas
Chandi (or Chanda): Two of the many names of the Great Goddess whose sacred animal is inuana. She is the embodiment of the vats uncontrollable intensity of divine enrgy and divine wrath.
Chandika: A goddess who symbolizes desire (kama). She is sometimes identified with Chamunda.
Chandisakti: The personification of Chandi’s energy which emerged from the goddess body howling like hundred jackals
Chinnarmasta or Chinnamastaka: The Beheaded. The Headless form of Durga representing power of sacrifice venerated by Saktas of Bengal. she is one of the Mahavidyas
Chintamani: The wish-fulfilling gem that came with Laksmi

Daitya: Son of kasyapa (one of the ten prajapatis) and Diti. They are the implacable enemies od gods.
Daksa: Skilled/able. The personification of ritual power which thinks men with the god. His father was Brahma and his wife, Prasuti. He had many daughters, 13 of whom were married to Dharma or Kasyapa. One of the daughters Svaha was married to Agni and another, Sati to Siva.
Damaru: A small double sided drum, shaped like hourglass and carried by Siva.
Danda: Staff or a Club signifying power and sovereignty. A emblem of Yama, god of death
Dasabhuja: Ten armed. The ten arms of particular deities representing the ten quarters of the sky and by extension symbolizes universal dominion.
Devi: Goddess
Dhana-Laksmi: A form of the goddess Laksmi denoting wealth
Dhanus: ‘Bow’ carried by Visnu’s incarnation Rama.
Dharani: Earth. A goddess personifying the earth and regarded as avatara of Laksmi.
Dhenu: A milch cow, symbolizing the abundance of the earth and said to be an animal form of Laksmi
Dikpala: The concept of the eight divine guardians of the four quarters and the four intermediate quarters – Indra (E), Agni (SE), Yama (S), Nirti (SW), Vayu (NW), Kubera (N), Isana (NE).
Dipa: Light. Laksmi is specially associated with Light.
Diti: Limited. A vedic goddess, the mother of demons (asuras) and sister of Aditi. Mother of Maruts, the howling storm gods.
Durga: An independent goddess personifying Shakti, consort of Siva
Durga: Name of an asuraDurga-Laksmi: The two goddess combined in one figure

Gada: Club. Mace which may be of various shapes and fashioned from wood or iron. The club symbolizes the power that ensures conformity to universal law and also represent Samkhya principle called buddhi.
Gaja-Laksmi: Name of an image of Laksmi depicted with an elephant (gaja) on each side. Their raised trunks sprinkle water over her which suggest she is mother goddess.
Ganga: The name of one of the most sacred river of India and its personification as a goddess who symbolizes the purity derived from primordial water, and hence her colour is white.
Gauri: Her colour is bright yellow. A gentle benevolent aspect of goddess, Parvati, consort of Siva. She is usually portrayed as two or four armed beautiful woman of white complexion. Her upper hands carry a rosary and a water pot, and lower hands are in abhaya and varada mudra.
Gaus: Cow. The most sacred animal in Hinduism whose symbolic quas-divine status stems from the Indus civilization representing abundance.
Ghanta or Ghanti: Bell.
Godhika: Iguana, an emblem of Gauri
Guna(s): Quality or property, characteristic that constitutes all creation. Theoretically there are three main gunas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas

Haimavati: Metronymic of Parvati, the daughter of Himavat.
Hiranyagarbha: Golden germ (or womb). The golden cosmin egg from which the universe issued and a name of Brahma in his creative aspect. The golden germ expresses itself in the form of a vibrating energy (spanana – sakti rupa). It divides itself into the causal mass of potentialities (the causal waters Rayi) and the breath of life (span) pictured as the wind that creates the waves in the causal form which all forms develop.
Homa: The act of making an oblation to the gods by throwing ghee into sacrificial fire

Icchasakti: The tantric sakti of desire
Indira: Powerful one. Name of goddess Laksmi, consort of Visnu
Indrani: Sachi, consort of Indra and the embodiment of power and one of the Saptamatrikas. Her emblems are rosary, elephant goad, water vessel, a flower or leaves of atree, a vajra and spear.
Isu: Arrow
Isvara: Lord, the creator and the ruler of the Universe. The personification of the Absolute.

Jagadamba or Jagadambi or Jaganmati: Mother of the world, a dynamic mother aspect of the Great Goddess, Devi
Jayanti: Victorious. Name of daughter of Indra, and an epithet of Durga whose emblem are – a sword, trident, shield and spear.
Jnanasakti: A goddess personifying the power of knowledge.
Jyestha or Alaksmi: An ancient South Indian goddess who became popular in many parts of India. She is the elder sister of Laksmi, but represents the opposite qualities. Jyestha is one of the sistala, the goddess of small pox. A crow (dead ancestors) is her symbol depicted on her banner and her mount is an ass – an animal used ritually to expiate sexual offences.

Kacchapa: Tortoise. The vehicle of Yamuna
Kailasa: A mountain peak said to be part of Himalaya and the abode of Siva and his family
Kala: Black. Time kala (Siva) and Visnu are regarded as an aspect of Cosmic Time (Mahakala).
Kala: Bhadra. Time (or Death). An aspect of Siva’s sakti, who is worshipped in burial grounds
Kali: Name of one of Agni’s 7 tongues of fire. The sakti of Siva who symbolizes the power of time. She may hold a noose, vajra, skull topped staff, swords and severed head
Kalika: A variety of Chamunda and one of Durga’s many names. As Kalika she represents Absolute Time from which Brahma, Visnu and Mahesvara and, other gods were born
Kalyanasundaramurti: An auspicious aspect of Siva taking Parvati’s hand in marriage.
Kama: The godama represent the creative impulse behind existence
Kamadhenu: The mythical wish-fulfilling Cow of plenty which emerged from Churning of the Ocean
Kamaksi or Kamakhya: Waton-eyed. A cruel form of Durga to whom formerly human beings were sacrificed . her chief temple is in Assam.
Kamandula: Small water-pot. Brahma has a water-pot as an emblem
Kapila: 7th century BC. According to tradition the t\ounder of the Samkhya system
Karma: An act of performance
Kasyapa: An ancient sage, the embodiment of the power of procreation. He is an archaic manifestation of the Lord of all creatures (Prajapati)
Katyayani: An aspect of the goddess Durga
Kauberi: Wife of Kubera and daughter of danava Mura, she is also called Yakshi or Carvi
Kaumari: Also called Sena. Name of the sakti of Kaumara (Skanda). Her mount is peacock and she is in abhaya nad varada mudra. She holds a staff bow, banner bell , water vessel, cockerel lotus, axe, spear etc.
Kausiki: Name of a goddess who sprang from the cells or Kosa of Parvati’s body
Kirttimuka: Face of glory. A magical protective mask to keep away evil
Kubera: King of Yakshas. And god of wealth
Kumbha: Pot or a Pitcher of water
Kurma: Cosmic Tortoise and an Incarnation of Visnu

Laksmi: Goddess of wealth and fortune. Consort of Visnu, the protector of the Universe
Laksmi-Narayana: Laksmi and her husband Visnu shown together

Madhavidevi: Earth goddess
Mahasakti: Great Sakti. The Mother aspect of Devi worshipped by Saktas
Mahesveta: An earth-goddess, a consort of Siva
Mahavidyas: Great (or transcendent) knowledge. Ten tantric goddesses of Sakti
Mahisa: Buffalo
Mahisasurmardini Durga: The Great Goddess who slayed of the Mahisa demon
Manasa: folk goddess of snakes
Maruts: Vedic storm gods, the allies of Indra
Matŗ: Mother
Matŗkas: Divine Mothers
Maya: Creative power or Illusion

Nama-rupa: Name and Form (or aspect)
Nirguna: ‘Beyond Qualities or Attributes’, the neuter Brahman

OM: The sacred syllable, the source of all mantras

Padma: Lotus,Symbolizes creation
Parasu: Battle-axe. Given to Durga by Visvakarma
Parvati: Daughter of King Parvat and consort of Lord Siva
Prakŗti: Nature. The world substance, matter, the source of universal material
Pratima: Image
Prithvi: The Earth
Puja: Worship or Homage
Purana(s): A collection of ancient texts – traditional tales describing the creation and destruction of the universe

Rajas: the tendency to manifest. One of the three gunas
Rupa: Form, Image.symbol

Sachi: A goddess personifying divine strength and power. She is Indra’s consort
Saguna: Deva
Salabhanjika: Statue or sculpture representing a girl gathering the flowers of a sala tree
Samkhya: The oldest of the six Hindu philosophies (darsana)
Sannyasin: Brhamin
Saptamatŗka: The group of seven divine mothers
Sarasvati: An ancient river and goddess personifying wisdom and speech
Sattva guna: Goddess. Purity, one of the three gunas
Savitri: Gayatri
Simha: Lion
Smriti: That which is ‘remebered’
Sri or SriDevi: Another name of Laksmi
Sruti: That which is ‘heard’
Sukta: A vedic ‘human’. Later the term denoted a wise saying, a song of praise etc.
Surasundari: Celestial nymph

Tamas: The tendeny to non-manifest and non-activity

Uma: Consort of Siva
Usa: Goddess of the dawn

Vach: Speech. Personified by goddess Sarasvati
Vahana: Mount or Vehicle carrying gods
Vaisnavi: Consort of Visnu holding a club and a lotus
Vajra: Thunder-bolt
Vana-Durga: Forset Durga, depicted in green
Vani: Sarasvati
Varahi: Consort of Varah holding a spear and a plough
Varuni or Varunani: Wife of Varuna and goddess of white wine and holds a wine cup (casaka), apiece of meat, alotus and Parijata flowers
Veda: Collection of four Samhitas written around 1500 BC onwards. Prior to it, were passed on orally
Vedanta: The end (anta) of Veda. Name of one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy
Vidya: Knowledge
Vighna; Obstacle
Visvarupa: Multi-form of a god or goddess

Yajña: Offering sacrifice
Yakshi: The female Yaksha and a name of Kubera’s wife
Yama: The god of Death
Yami: Twin sister of Yama
Yamuna: A name of a river. Flanked at the doorways of Hindu temples along with Ganga to purify devotees before enetering the Sanctum
Yogesvari: The terrific form of Cinmaya Devi also represents light of pur consciousness. One of the eigth mother
Yoni: Female generative organ vulva when depicted with linga represent the two of them the cosmic Purusha and Prakriti – dualism

Goddesses of India

2006-04-13T22:29:00.000-07:00

Parvatī, the consort of Śiva

Of all the consorts of Śiva the one that is aristically and lovingly the most celebrated is Parvatī. Unlike Durgā and Kalī who assume their own independent religious status in the Hindu pantheon and are worshipped and venerated ritually, Parvatī engages the greater attention of the poets and painters, musicians and dancers. Numerous are her aspects, varied persona, multiple attributes and many her names. Of all the mythic beings in the Hindu pantheon she is perhaps the most loved one.

As a young girl, daughter of the mountain king Parvat and mother Mena, she is demure and charming. As a young woman she grows into unsurpassed grace and elegance and is the embodiment of perfect sensual beauty, a sundari. In her courtship with the reticent Śiva she is the epitome of tapasya, penance, and is Parvatī tapasvini. As Śiva’s consort she becomes his vama and ardhangini. In her affection towards her two sons Ganeśa and Kartikeya she is the loveing mother. As his constant companion she leads Śiva to perfect knowledge and becomes Parvatī vimarshini. As a provider to the medicant Śiva she Annapoorna. As Minakshi and Gauri she offers herself to the devout Śiva bhakta. And in combining all these diverse roles ahe is Parvatī yogini.

Mythology:

The story of Parvatī’s life, as for all Hindus begins even before she is born.

After Śiva’s first consort Sati had immolated herself, he completely withdrew from the worldly life. The gods remained concerned at Śiva’s uninvolvement with the world and his indifference to the ravages that the demon Taraka was unleashing on the three worlds. The gods approached Aditī, the mother of all. She agreed to enter the womb of Mena, the wife of the mountain king Parvat. Parvatī was born at the midnight in the season of spring. The child was name Kalī and grew beautiful day by day and fondly attached to the entire town, it was thus that she was called Parvatī.

Even as a child she knew she was to marry Śiva and did severe penance. At an appropriate time king Parvat approached the sage Narada and asked him to read Parvatī’s fortune. Narada on reading predicted that she was to marry a naked ascetic but assured that he would be none other than Śiva himself and revealed Parvatī’s past life. Mena however, was apprehensive. Parvat told her that he had a dream that Śiva arrived at Aushadiprastha to practice austerities and had a discourse with thire daughter Parvatī, where he expounded the magnificient Vedanta. Śiva asked Parvat to keep his beautiful daughter away from him as woman is an illusion, Māyā. On hearing this Parvatī addressed to the Lord and explained that the energy behind every activity was the matter-Prakŗti, and that it is prakŗti that creates, sustains and destroys everything that is embodied. Parvatī explained that while Śiva was the pristine Purusha, she was the primordial Prakŗti – the Samkhya doctrine.

The dream came true. But Śiva continued his solitary inward meditation. And Parvatī with her severe austerities as she was also a tapasvini, knew too well that sadhana or spiritual effort would be complete without tapasya.

The gods in despair approached Kama, the god of love and desire to shoot arrows of love to Śiva. Kama took up his bow and shot five arrows made of aravindam, ashoka, chutam, navamallika and nilotphalla flowers. Kama’s arrows awoke Śiva from his meditation and his anger burnt Kama to ashes. But by this time, Śiva’s desired for Parvatī. However to test Parvatī, he disguised himself and tried to convince Parvatī not to marry Śiva. But Parvatī refused to agree. Seeing her devotion, Siva revealed his true identity and married Parvatī.

Mahişāsurmardinī-Durgā

The origin of Mahişāsurmardinī-Durgā is as mysterious as her rise to the status of Mahādevī or Mahāsurī. Some scholars have attempted to trace her origin from the cult of Mother Goddess of the pre-vedic society, where mother was all powerful. She was however more than that; she became the proto-type of the cosmic energy (Prakŗti). The worship of the Mother Goddess of the matriarchal society in the pre-vedic society virtually formed the nucleus of the later Śāktism.

Durgā finds mention in the Taittirīya Āraņyaka, but not as a warrior goddess. The connotation of the word ‘Durgā’ are the demon Durga, great danger, impediments of the world, evil deeds, grief, worries, hell punishment of Yama, birth, fear and disease. The term is used in sense of killing. Since the Devī kills or removes all these is known as Durgā.

There are two hymns in the Khila-Rātri-Sūkta which refer to the goddess Durgā. The three deities, namely Vāc-Sarasvatī, Rātri and Śrī of the Sūkta are the three important manefaetations of Śakti as Mahākālī, Mahālakşmi and Mahā-Sarasvatī.

The Śaktā Upanişads enhanced the status of the goddess to an unprecedented degree in a philosophical garb. The Devī UpanişadI relates directly to the personification of Śakti such as Durgā, Mahālakşmi, Sarasvatī and Vaişņavī depicting as Brahmasvarūpiņī.

Pushpendra Kumar observes in “Śakti cult in Ancient India” that: she is infinite, unborn, incomprehensible and one because of her omnipresence. She is also not one as she is the whole universe. She is verily the Brahman and hence she is called in contradictions, being and not being all this universe, gods and all that exists. That, beyond which there is nothing, is Durgā. She is three-eyed and wears red garments. She is all compassion. She takes one beyond the ocean of births and deaths.

In the epics we get clear traces of Durgā though the goddess did not appear to have independent cult of her own. In the Rāmāyaņa she bears the epithet of Devī revered by all. She is always considered as the consort of Śiva having the names Girijā and Umā. In this we come across an interesting epithet of Simihikā noticed by Hanumān in the ocean. There is a tradition in the later Rāmāyaņa that Rāmchandra celebrated autumn worship of the goddess Durgā. The tradition has historical authenticity as several Purāņas of later date quote it in different ways.

During the time of Mahābhārata the role of Durgā is very conspicuous. Two hymns addressed to Durgā, one by Arjuna and other by Yudhişţhira bring to light her both Śaivite and Vaşņavite characters. In the Bhīşma Parva of the Mahābhārata we come across the hymn in the form of a prayer to Durgā, where Arjuna invokes the leader of the Siddhas. Yudhişţhira in the Virāţa Parva invokes the goddess Durgā as the sister of Hari to remove danger.

Mythology:

The account of the origin of the goddess Mahişāsurmardinī-Durgā in Devī-Māhātmya of the Mārkaņdya Purāņa describes that the gods were defeated in a great battle by the Asuras which lasted for over 100 years when Mahisha was the king of the asuras and Indra of the gods. Then the vanquished gods, placing Prajāpati Brahmā as thair head, went to Śiva and Vişņu and narrated to them the entire episode of their defeat and miseries.

Having heard the story from the bodies of the krodhit (angry) gods – Śiva, Vişņu, Brahmā, Indra and other gods was emitted great energy, which pervaded the three worlds with its lights, gathering into one, becoming a female. In Vāmana Purāņa she has been called Kātyāyanī, as she emerged from the āśrama of Sage Kātyāyanā. In chapter 22 however of the Vāmana Purāņa the incarnation of the Great Goddess in the form of Kausiki for slaying the demons Śumbha and Niśumbha. She was according to the text produced from the sheath of Pārvatī and became to be known as Kausiki.

In the Devī Bhāgavata Purāņa the gods inform Vişņu that only a female could be the cause of the death of the demon. Thereafter she was born with eighteen arms, three eyes, a shining face, red lips and was bedecked with all jewellery and ornaments. All the gods presented their weapons to her. The formation of the human form of the goddess, therefore, is ascribable to the following gods:-

Śiva’s energy face
Agni’s energy three-eyes and long hair
Vişņu’s energy arms
Moon’s energy two breasts developed
Indra’s energy waist came into being
Varuņa’s energy her legs and thighs were formed
Earth’s energy her hips appeared
Brahmā’s energy her feet and toes were formed
Kūbera’s energy her nose was formed
Vayū’s energy her ears were formed
Prajāpati’s energy her teeth
Sun’s energy her hands and fingers were made

To her, the gods gave the following attributes:-

Śiva a Trident
Agni a Dart
Vişņu a Discus
Indra a Thunder Bolt and a Bell6
Varuņa a Conch
Brahmā a Rosary and a Water pot (Kamandula)
Kūbera a Mace
Vayū a Bow
Surya a Quiver and Arrows
Kāla a Sword and a Shield
Himavān a Lion
Visvakarmā a Battle Axe
Yama a Staff

Kālī

Of the many manifestations of the Mahadevī, her ten terrific forms, together known as Daśamahāvidyās, are very important. The Mahābhāgavata Purāņa writes Etah sarvah prakŗşţah mūrtayah vahumūrttişu (from the numerous ramifications of Devī daśamahāvidyās are the greatest). According to the Cāmuņdā Tantra Daśamahāvidyās are;
Kālītārā mahāvidyā şodaśi bhuvaneśvarī
Bhairavī Chinnamastā ca Mātāngī Kamalātmikā/
Dhūmāvati ca Vagalā Mahāvidyāh Prakīrtitāh//

Kālī and Tārā are known as Mahāvidyās, Şodaśi, Bhuvaneśvarī,Bhairavī Chinnamastā as Vidyās and Vagalā, mātańgī and Kamalā as Siddhavidyās. Purņas contains an interesting story with regard to the origin of Mahāvidyās. The story runs that Dakşa arranged a yajña and invited all gods and goddesses except his daughter Satī and her husband Mahādeva. Satī was shocked at the unpleasant behaviour of her father, but attempted to persuade Śiva to accompany her to Dakşa’s house or to permit her to go alone. Despite her repeated request Siva denied her to go. Devī requested that if she was not treated properly by her father she would sacrifice herself in the yajña. Mahādeva remained firm in his decision. So did Satī. At this stage the enraged Devī assumed a terrible form and decided to teach a lesson to her husband, Siva. She appeared before him in a fierce posture roaring loudly, looking effulgent with the rays of thousand suns, decked with garland of skulls and with disheveled hair. Śiva was terrified to see such a dreadful appearance of Devī and attempted to flee away. But she covered all the ten directions with her ten forms. This form of Devī came to be known as Daśamahāvidyās. She is black and fearful,; she is Mahāprakŗti, destroyer of the universe.

Mythology:

Kālī or Mahālī, the first Mahāvidyā, is the most popular deity in India. The origin of this goddess, who in later phase became widely accepted as tantric goddess, dates back to the vedic period. In the seven tongue or flames of Agni, Kālī stands first. Kālī is again known as Rātri Devī or kālrātri. In the vedic literature she is associated with another ferocious demoness Niŗtti as both of them are black in complexion, cause distress and death, dreadful war goddesses surviving on enemy’s blood.

In Durgā Saptaśatī Cāmuņdā is called Kālī. The story of this text relates that Canda and Muņda, the two allies of Śumbha and Niśumbha attempted to kidnap Ambikā her face turned to dreadful countenance. At that moment Kālī appeared in a dreadful form with mouth wide open, shrunken belly, droopy eyes, decked in tiger’s skin, garland of human heads shouting in lion’s roar. This goddess Cāmuņdā born from the fury of Durgā in the battle field has the independent status unlike other Mātrikās born from other important gods bearing their characteristic features.

In yet another mythological narration Kālī is said to be the black complexioned daughter of the mountain king Pārvat from his queen Mena born on the midnight in the spring season. She practiced severe austerities to win Śiva as her husband. After her marriage with Śiva when one day he teased her as Kālī, that is black-complexioned, she felt insulted. Immediately she left kailāsh and went to perform penance to win a boon. Satisfied with her Brahmā gave her the boon to be the fair-complexioned Gaurī.

The Lińga Purāņa gives an interesting legend wherein Kālī was created to kill a demon named Dāruka who beacame very powerful through severe penance. Brahmā offered him a boon making him all powerful. He was to be killed by a woman alone. Pārvatī took the task of killing him. Instantly she entered the body of Śiva and created her body within by drinking poison from his neck. When Mahādeva knew her gradual growth in his own body he emitted her through his third eye. The created goddess came to be known as Vişakālī or Nīlakaņţhī. She was dreadful in appearance, three-eyed, armed with a trident and snakes.

In the Vilamkā Rāmāyaņa of the 15th century AD Kālī has been beautifully described. Rāmchandra boasted of his prowess by killing the ten-headed Rāvaņa; Sītā smiled at Rāma’s pride and challenged, could he kill thousand headed Rāvaņa? Ra accepted but to his misery he lost the battle and cried in misery. Sītā appeared at this critical moment in the dreadful form of Kālī and killed the demon king and started dancing in her war cry. Her dance was so fierce that the whole universe started shaking for its roots. The Gods got scared and approached Śiva, who presented himself before her as a dead body. Brhamā immediately pointed out to her that her husband Śamkara was lying below her feet. When she identified Śiva she looked aghast, lolled out her tongue and stopped her terrific dance.

Saptamātŗkās

Mythology:

The Mahābhata relates that after the annihilation of the demon king Hiraņyakaśipu by Narasimha-Vişņu, his son Prahlāda, a devoet devotee of Visnu renounced the worldly life; Andhkāsura became the chief of the demons. To obtain unlimited power and strength he invested in severe austerities, which made him invincible to the gods. The gods went to Kailash to Lord Śiva. While Śiva was listening to them paitently, Andhkāsura appeared suddenly and attempted to snatch way Pārvatī, which in turn cursed him as he was to die if he lies evil eyes on someone like his mother and since he was born out of andhkār created by Pārvatī when she had earlier once closed Śiva’s eyes. Siva instantly charged him and injured him with Paśupata weapon. Blood drops from the demon when touched the earth, arose many more Andhkāsuras. Siva was at fix. All the gods then combined their energies and created their Śakti’s to assist śiva in his battle.. the ferocious goddesses devoured up every drop of blood gushed out of the wounds of the demon and finally killed him.

According to the Mārkaņdeya Purāna, the Mātŗkās were created to assist Ambikā to kill Raktavīrya, the most powerful ally of the demon-king Sumbha and Niśumbha. In both the cases, the Mātŗkās were created so as not to allow drops of blood falling on the ground.

Another version of the story regard to the killing of Andhkāsura by śiva, occurs in Matsya Purāņa. Here after the death of the demon king the Mātŗkās continues to destroy the universe. Śiva then seeks the help of Narasimha, who creates 32 divine mothers more powerful and formidable than the previous ones. These divine mothers appear in a way that none could stand the flash of wrath emanating from their eyes. All the Mātŗkās then took refuge in Narasimha, who advised them to foster and guard the universe as men and animals look after their children. The same version is repeated in the Kūrma Purāņa with the inclusion of the malevolent Bhairava.

Brahmāņī
Brahmā
Mada (desire)
Ladle in her right hand
Hamsa

Māheśvarī
Māheśvara
Krodha (anger)
Trisula (Trident )
Bull

Kaumārī
Kaumār
Moha (Illusion)
Spear
Peacock

Vaişņavāi
Vişņu
Lobha (greed)
Mace
Kneeling Garuda

Vārāhī
Vārāha
Asuya
Daņda-dhāriņi
Mahiş

Indrāņī
Indra
Mātsarya (aristrocracy)
Vajra
Elephant

Cāmuņdā
Paiśunya (malignity)
Preta

In the Varaha Purāņa the story of Andhakāsura and Mātŗkās has allegorical meaning. The Mātŗkās represent Ātma-vidyā or spiritual wisdom against Andhakāra, the darkness of ignorance (the Apasmāra, the dwarf of ignorance whom śiva as Natrāja destroys under is foot). Siva represents Vidyā fighting against the darkness avidyā. The more this is attempted to be attacked by vidyā, the kore does it tend to increase for a time; this fact is represented by the multiplication of the figures of Andhkura. Unless the eight evil qualities like kāma, krodha etc. are completely brought under control of vidyā and kept under retraint, it can never succeed in putting down andhkāra.

Meaning

Philosophical: “As śakti, prakŗti and māyā, the Devī is portrayed as an overwhelming presence that overflows itself, spilling forth into the creation, suffusing the world with vitality, energy and power. When the Devī is identified with these philosophical ideas, then a positive point is being made: the Devī creates the world, she is the world, and she is not understood so much as binding cratures to finite existence as being the very source and vitality of creatures. She is the source of creatures – their mother-and as such her awesome, vital power is revered.”*

The idea of Brahman is another central idea with which the Devī is associated. In the Upanişads, and throughout the Hindu tradition, Brahman is described in two ways: as nirguņa (having no quality or beyond all qualities) and saguņa (having qualities). As nirguņa, which is usually affirmed to be the superior way of thinking about Brahman, ultimate reality transcends all qualities, categories and limitations. As nirguņa, Brahman transcends all attempts to circumscribe it. It is beyond all name and form (nāma-rūpa). As the ground of all things, as the fundamental principle of existence, however, Brahman is also spoken of as having qualities, indeed, as manifesting itself in a multiplicity of deities, universe and beings. As saguņa Brahman reveals itself especially as the various deities of the Hindu pantheon. The main philosophical point asserted in the idea of saguņa Brahman is underlying all the different gods is unifying essence, namely, Brahman. Each individual deity is understood to be partial manifestation of Brahman, which ultimately is beyond all specifying attributes, functions and qualities.

The idea of Brahman serves well the attempts in many texts devoted to the Devī to affirm her supreme position in Hindu pantheon. The idea of Brahman makes two central philosophical points congenial to the theology of Mahādevī: (1) she is ultimate reality itself, and (2) she is the source of all divine manifestations, male and female (but especially female). As saguņa Brahman, the Devī is portrayed as a great cosmic queen enthroned in highest heaven, with a multitude of deities as agents through which she governs the infinite universes.

She is not just an icon to be worshipped; an art object to be curated in a museum, a symbol to be decoded, a metaphor to be pried open, an ancient goddess that is an anthropological curiosity, a goddess whose marriage is a sociological analysis. Perhaps she is all of this but she is much more than the sum of those disciplines. She is chit, our very being, she śakti or the energy that animates us and the world around us; her presence is a doorway to anada or bliss; she is the very embodiment of isaundarya or beauty; not just sensuous but spiritual, a spandana or throb of knowledge through which we seek our own self.

The Kashmir Śaivism, which is strongly advaitic or non-dualistic in nature postulates an unique epistemology or system of knowledge from which emerges a world-view that has underpinned Indian aesthetics for the last millennium. The chitanada (or joyous self-awareness) for the Kashmir Śaivite leads the individual from ‘aham’, “I am” to the initial realization ‘aham idam’, “I am myself”, and then to the ultimate realization ‘aham evam vishvarupam’ “I am the entire world.” In the word ‘aham’, ‘a’ stands for Śiva (puruşa), ‘h’ stand for Pārvatī (prakŗti) and ‘m’ is the bindu or the anusvara. In chanting ‘aham’ one is not only asserting the togetherness of the two elements – puruşa and prakŗti but equally realizing that it is Pārvatī, prakŗti who herself brings the chant to a point of stillness through the bindu.

Practical: The famous astro-physicist Stephen Hawking argues that the universe is created from the gravitational attraction between the (active) matter and the (inactive) non-matter. The non-matter is a residue of the matter, which created distance because of repulsion due to their natural characteristic. As and when the condition changed and they by chance came closer the gravitational force attracted them towards each other and from there Big Bang took place, creating the Universe.

I take the liberty to assume that the presence of the matter and the non-matter together is well represented in the story of Ardhanariśvara; then the separation follows eventually leading to the gravitational attraction of the two opposite nature, as propounded by the Samkhya philosophy of (sexual) duality of conscious (puruşa) and unconscious (prakŗti) elements.

The essence of everything in this universe was Prakŗti, which ‘is inherent in everything but has no shape of its own. It has neither beginning nor end.’ It is the Nature and, exists even without any name or forms (nama-rūpā) as steam exists in water, fire exist in spark. It needs an external inactive force (puruşa) – fire to boil water to create steam and; air to blow spark to produce fire.

According to this practical philosophy, the body was like a plant which germinated from, the seed, grew spread and then withered away; yet, something remained. The seed disappeared from view but produced another plant. The seeds germinated due to the rains but what grew depended on the seed alone; that is, only paddy grew from paddy, not wheat. For a man, a seed was like his karma (action or doing) and Īśvara or God was like the rain, which was the cause of the growth of the plant. A logical inference from this principle was that the Samsār (a chain of appearances) had neither a beginning nor an end.

Prakriti

2006-04-13T22:21:00.000-07:00

Introduction

Art in India is never removed from life, intimately tied as it is to religion, aesthetics and utility. A walk into a temple or a place of worship becomes an experience at different levels – tactile, olfactory, sensory and visual, spiritual and religious.

The Indian tradition is rich with goddesses. So varied are her manifestations and names that every village and every scripture, every Purāņa and poet created their own unique image of her. While sometimes she is a consort, at other times she is fertility goddess; at times she is a benevolent figure yet at other places she is horrific and malevolent.

Śakti worship was of great antiquity in India. Archaeological remains from pre-historic times and from the proto-historic cities of the Indus civilization that were at the height of sophistication between 2600-1900 BC include large number of crudely fashioned female clay figurines, generally called Mother Goddess. The dominance of such terracotta figurines among the material remains from these cultures and absence of corresponding male figures suggest important role played in ancient times by female divinity. Starting around 1300 BC, a group of nomadic people who called themselves Aryans, or Noble Ones, became dominant in Northern India. Tah Vedas reflected a worldwide view of that was overwhelmingly masculine, particularly in the spiritual sphere. The earlier Mother Goddesses of India lay low, their voices, but the peasants in the numerous villages that dotted the countryside continued to worship them. Testifying to the quite continuance of an ancient tradition is the many terracotta goddess figurines deposited in the waters of an expansive tank belonging to the 1st and 2nd century at Shringaverapura near Allahbad.

Post-vedic literature including the Upanishads, composed from the 4th century BC onwards continued to promote the male dominated worldview, but start from the 1st millennium AD witnessed the goddess of India slowly emerge from their hibernation and make their presence felt in a significant but subdued role as Dayānīs (beneficient wish granters) in the form of Yakshīs. Finely fashioned terracotta plaques that featured a female deity began to be made by skilled artisans, probably for use in the home shrines of wealthy and sophisticated townspeople; simultaneously, terracotta figurines began to be moulded in the round to create some truly remarkable sculptures. Sometime during the 1st-2nd century AD, images of goddesses began to appear in the more lasting medium of stone, and many of these feature as warrior goddess, most often with 6 arms, grappling with a buffalo demon. Also, dating from the 5th-6th century are the first well-preserved Indian stone images of Mother Goddesses who either hold an infant in their arms or accompanied by a toddler; images of these kind measure just under one meter tall, and were exquisitely carved by stone sculptors.

Prakŗti

In the beginning there was no creation. Brahmā-Prajāpati was in distress.

He asked himself: “why are humans not growing in numbers?”

He then heard a voice: “because you have not created the fertility aspect of man”

In front of him appeared Lord Śiva as Ardhanāriśvara. Before Brahmā, he separated into a man and a woman. Brahmā realized his mistake and apologized to Śiva’s śakti. Then he created woman so that man can produce his next generation or vamsa.

The underlying principle of Śaktism is (sexual) dualism, which has been aptly described as “duality in unity”. In this development of the primitive mother worship, the goddess was transformed into personification of female energy (Śakti) and as the eternal productive principle (prakŗti), united with the eternal male principle (puruşa) and became the creator and mother of the Universe.

The universe had always existed in Prakŗti; and according to the chain of Cosmic Evolution, it sometimes appeared and sometimes disappeared but it could be brought to ‘existence’ from non-existence, because without the material, how anything could be formed. For example, if the cream was not already hidden in the milk, how could it be produced?

What is this Prakŗti, which Kapila praised about eight centuries before Christ in Sāmkhya Darśana, the oldest philosophy of India? Prakŗti means ‘Nature’. As Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan has rightly noted, “the Man-Nature relationship was at the core of this vision enunciated repeatedly at all dimensions – biological, physical, psychical, philosophical, metaphysical and spiritual.”^

The principles of Sāmkhya flowed from the principles of Cosmic Evolution. However, in explaining the Prime Movement it becomes inevitable to introduce non-material existence and an imperceptible being like Puruşa, “Spirit”. According to the practical philosophy steam is inherent in water but needs to be heated, an external being. The result of these contradictions was that, in later times, some followers of Kapila began to believe that Puruşa was the Prime Mover, or Īśvara of all. They therefore came to the conclusion that Puruşa was the eternal Father and Prakŗti the Mother. Some believed that Puruşa was in reality the great soul (absolute man) and Prakŗti was Śakti or his consort.*^

It is significant that the Sāmkhya philosophy enunciated for the first time, the principle that energy was never destroyed but was always dissipating, as a result of which the evolutionary cycle never came to an end. Probably that is why the Śakti disappeared from time to time to re-emerge.

The feminine conceptualization of nature occupies a very significant place in Indian religious history. ‘Pr’ is the sound of creation. The prime function of Prakŗti is to create. That is why Prakŗti has been identified with Mother from whom is our sristhi and over the years we have called her the Mother Goddess (Maa), the creator and mother of the Universe (Jagadambā), the female energy (Śakti). Almost all the geographical features of the natural environment are personified as goddesses.

In this connection J.N.Banerjea has observed, that “The worship of the female principle can be traced in the country, as in many other ancient countries of the world, to a very remote past…”

Samkhya divides all things that are there into two radically different kinds – consciousness (cetana) and unconsciousness (jada). The subjects of pure consciousness are Puruşa, and the totality of jada things is called Prakŗti, the causal system. The ultimate constituents of which Prakŗti or all jada things are composed are guņas – substantive entity. The essence of everything in this universe was Prakŗti, which ‘is inherent in everything but has no shape of its own. It has neither beginning nor end.’ The three Guņas are: (i) Sattva –the tendency to act or, which are responsive to the light of puruşa (ii) Rajas – the tendency to act or express themselves in motion, that is the dynamic principle in prakŗti, continuously changing; and (iii) Tamas- the tendency to non-manifestation and non-activity or, which resist the light of puruşa and the force exerted by rajas gunas as it (tamas) is inert. Every phenomenon in Prakŗti is an admixture of all the three kinds of guņas.

These three guņas of Prakŗti – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas of the Devī are manifested in the three important goddesses –Mahāsarasvatī, Mahālakşmī and Mahākālī. These three manifestations are three tattvas of three fundamental principles of Mahādevī. Sattva stands for white colour, Rajas stands for red and Tamas stands for black.

Earth Goddess

The Earth is Mother; I am son of the Earth
[Atharva Veda, 12.1.12b]

The earth is the supreme, loving, life sustaining mother. She is beautiful, fertile, nurturing and generous. She is close to humans as their own skin. That is why it is said ‘mitti se bana insaan, mitti me mil jayega,’ (man is made of soil and be dissolved in soil). As person’s entire existence depends upon her, man is of earth, part of earth. The earth is his home. She is merciful, compassionate mother whose benign heart pours unconditional love to all, irrespective of their station in life.

Nature’s śakti is visible everywhere in the cyclic movement of germination, growth and decay of life. Śakti is the energetic feminine potency of the Earth Mother, the life line of the living earth. This mother aspect, when viewed in the light of human nature can be traced out from the Stone Age. In the case of a woman, pregnancy has been the most emotional stage and the birth of the child, a jubilant moment. In the early stages of human history the phenomenon must have made an awe-inspiring impact on the mind of man. For, in this, he must have understood the “fertility” aspect of a woman and that it was exclusive to her, to give birth to a child. She was seen as representation of fertility equaled with the earth which also produces the needs of man and helps in the production and sustenance of life.

The village communities in the North-West frontiers of India during the hunting and gathering stages in isolation from each other had developed the terracotta art. They had achieved proficiency by about the beginning of 3rd millennium BC. In the later part, a definite stage was reached in the development of the figurines of the Mother Goddess in the art of terracotta. John Marshall testifies emphatically (in Mohenjodaro and Indus Civilization, I, p. 48) that the worship of mother goddess was widespread in the Indus empire and further observes that “in no country in the world has the worship of the Divine Mothers, been from the time immemorial so deep rooted and ubiquitous as in India.”

But all the terracotta figurines cannot be called Mother Goddess. Dr. D.P.Sharma, curator of Indus Valley Gallery of National Museum points out that “only those figurines representing fertility can be called Mother Goddess. They can be distinguished from their full and round breast in place of conical shaped of other figurines, broad and triangular hips, highly ornated and found at religious sites. Sometimes they are represented only in Triangular shape.”

Pre-historic Evidence:

H.D.Sankalia points out that “a small figurine was found in that Belan Valley of the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh…”

But S.P.Gupta has contested the claim and he does not feel that the figurine is that of a Mother Goddess. Hence the identification of the object discovered from Belan Valley cannot be claimed to be beyond suspicion, of its being that of the Mother Goddess.

Pre-Harappan Sites:

In the above background as well as in the absence of any tangilble evidence, it cannot be claimed with authority that the adoration of the Mother Goddess was in vogue in the Upper Paleolithic, though in the pre-historic cave paintings in the rock shelter of Bhimbetika a few female figurines with the signs of pregnancy have been found depicted, which could represent mother-hood. Still however their representations outnumber the male ones. This may indicate their use for cult purpose, the female energy or mother principle being one of the earliest forms of worship among several ancient races of the world.

The pre-Harappan Mother Goddess figurines found in the Zhob and Kulli cultures have grotesque character, they are the earliest expressions of the religious ideas of the first farmers of the sub-continent.

Harappan Sites:

It curious that Indus finds do not include any positive religious material. All that we have to rely on for reconstructing the religion of the people is the testimony of seals, sealings, figurines etc. a large number of terracotta figurines of nude females have been found from Harappa as well as Mohenjodaro and other Indus valley sites like Baluchistan. Some of them, like the woman kneeling or holding a dish of cakes in her arm are probably mere toys without religious meaning. Others with children in their arms or left side may be assumed to be ex-voto offerings, perhaps with magical significance, for the boon of female fertility.

Post-Harappan Culture:

Very few figurines akin to Mother Goddess have been found in the post-Harappan village settlements of various parts in India between c. 1750-600 BC. Clay figurines may have been reported from several Chalcolithic sites in the Deccan. These figures are totally different from Indus types lacking in ornamentation and having plump physiognomy and stumpy limbs. The southern Tamil Nadu, Kerela, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have-not yielded Mother Goddes figurines belonging to the period earlier than 1st century BC.

Early Historic Sites:

During the early historical period the Indian cultural scene was flooded with various types of gods and goddesses and in due course of time the iconography of the deities was also developed making them not only more appealing to the human or even composite forms. Not many, but few Graeco-Hellenistic styled female figurines have been found from Taxila and Gandhara, and some indigenous-styled from Mathura. Most of the figurines of the Earth Mother were painted over with red slip or wash as of many of the figurines in India today as red is the colour of fertility.

Ring stones and triangular shaped discs with variety of formal relief of decorative and cultic character have been found at many sites. The carvings occupy only one face of the ring and are generally arranged in concentric bands with conventional figure of Mother Goddess, palm trees with varying thickness. Some of them are without figures of the Mother Goddess. There is a central hole in the ring. The small ring stones suggest the adoration of yoni, the female symbol generation was also prevalent, thogh not to such extent as the worship of lińga.

“Earth is known to all civilizations and cultures as the great Mother Goddess. Predating the Vedas are the figures of Mother Earth Goddess in the form of ring stones. The Vedas dedicate many hymns to Pŗthivī,” explains Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan as “the Bhūmisūkta being one of the greatest hymns. She is invoked as born of the waters of the ocean. Surrounded by space, she is the creator, the sustainer.”

Man says “I am the son of the earth, the rains are my father, let him, the Lord of the rain, fill the earth for us. O Earth protects us, purify us. Let people milk her with amity. O Earth, give us sweet words. The snowy mountain heights and thy forests, O Earth, shall be kind to us and we to them.”

Her fertility is symbolized through the image of the brimming vase, the bowl of plenty. Foliage and the lotus emerge from the bowl: the waters below the life giving forces of regeneration and energy of sun blossoms as the vegetation is the sap of life (the rasa). Water, earth, plant, animal, human and the divine come together in images of the goddess Pŗthivī, also identified as Devī. Myths evolved around each and every one of the trees and plants. Aśvattha was central, so also was Bilva, the mango, the Sāl, the coconut and the bamboo. If one of the tree of life, the other was the upturned tree of Upanisadic thought. The Sāl is not only central and vital to the ecological cycle of the forests of Bihar and Bastar providing vast communities with the famous Karma festival, but it is the Sāl tree whom Māyā embraced as Buddha was born.

The tree-woman relationship dominates Indian myth. The most functionally meaningful and inspirer of countless myths and the richest treasure of Indian sculptural motif is the Vŗkşikā, also called by other names- Yakşī, Surasundarī and many others. They stand against trees, embrace them and thus become an aspect of the tree articulating the interpretation of the plant and the human. The tree is dependent upon the woman for its fertility as is woman on the tree.

Even today in villages of Assam and Bengal girls are first married to a tree and then only a human groom is seeked for them so that they never have to live the life of a Sati. On the very topic famous Director Aparna Sen had made a movie called “Sati”.

Water Cosmology and Divine Feminine

The term “Water Cosmology” was first probably employed by Hume, in the Introduction to his Thirteen Principal Upanishads, pp. 10-14, with reference to such passages as Bŗhadaāraņyaka, 5.5, “in the beginning this world was just water,” and 3, 6 I, “all this world is woven, warp and woof , on water,”… *

The concept of Water as a potent power, as energy in liquid form, harks back to the time of Ŗgveda when sages linked the mysterious event of the creation with waters, apparently conceiving even at the early date of life developing from a primordial “soup”. Consider the first verse of the so-called Creation hymn:

There was neither non-existence nor existence then;
There was neither the realm of space nor the sky which is beyond.
What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
Was there water, bottomlessly deep?

In the Purāņic conception of the birth of Brahmā, the creator is abjaja, lotus-born from the lotus that springs from Vişņu’s navel, said to represent the center of energy of the universe, while the lotus is the material aspect of evolution, the petals is consecutive forms (Agni Puraāņa, XLIX). Vişņu, as Śayana-mūrti, here reclines upon the waters; the great name Nārāyaņa is said to mean “moving on the waters”; of Kubera’s (God of Wealth) epithet Naravāhana, nara supposedly referring not to men (as later understood), but to water spirits, Gandharvas.

Life on earth emerges from the eternal waters that hold the potency of fire. The myths of waters take innumerable other forms relating to the ocean (Sāgara), the rivers and the nymphs of the skies. Indian literature is replete with their names – Sarasvatī, Gańgā, Yamunā, Urvaśī or Menakā. Indian folk lore sanctifies these. All these deities are members of the vast water cosmology so vital and central to Indian thought.

The nature of the Water Cosmology is, however, sufficiently revealed in what has been given. The ideology may be summed up as follows: from the primeval waters arose the plants, from the plants all other beings, in particular the gods, man and cattle. There is nothing in this tendency contradictory to the use of the human form, which in the case of the feminine powers of fertility and abundance can be traced far back into prehistoric times. But from water, we must move to the first vegetative and acquatic life principle. The lotus and the snake in botanical and zoological terms are born of the waters. These powers, particularly Śrī, who is closely connected with the waters, stand in close relation to the Water Cosmology, and at the same time are represented in the aspect of women.

Śrī Lakşmī

Lakşmī’s initial role as a goddess of wealth associated with lotus was soon elevated by the Mahabhārata epic (c. 400 BC – AD 400) in which she was transformed into the consort of Vişņu. Lakşmī may indeed be the most invoked among those deities who are dayanis. The lotus is a comparatively late entrant into Indian myth, but once it finds its place, Hindu, Jain, Buddhist art, thought and myth consider it indispensable. In all these cases whether as seat (āsana) or emblem or epithet, it denotes fecundity, abundance, well-being. Logically, lotus becomes goddess and is personified as Śrī and Lakşmī. She is praised as lotus-born (padmasambhavā), standing on a lotus (padmasthitā), lotus-coloured (padmavarņā), lotus-eyed (padmākşī) etc.

Mythology:

Wealth and power corrupted the demon-kings whom earlier Śrī Devī had blessed. Now, pleasure and comfort has weakened the god-king. Neither held on to dharma for long. Neither deserved her grace. So, the goddess dissolved herself in the ocean of milk. Instantly a gloom descended upon the world: reverberated with song and dance. Weapons lost their power, gems their sparkle, men their vigor. Cows did not give milk, fields became barren, and trees bore neither flower nor fruit. The cosmos became a desolate place, bereft of joy and laughter.

The goddess’s disappearance caused panic in three worlds. The gods and demons alike wanted to bring her back. Vişņu suggested by churning the ocean of milk, they can bring her back. With Mandara, king of mountains, as the spindle and Akupara, king of turtles, as the base, the devas and the asuras created the cosmic churn. Using Vasuki, the king of serpents, as the churning rope, they began churning the ocean of milk.

The churn twisted and turned, the ocean frothed and fumed, waves roared and spewed foam in every direction. Pleased by their efforts, the goddess finally emerged as Lakşmī, the desirable one, in all her splendor. Seated on a dew-drenched lotus (the symbol of life), dressed in red silk, red being the color of fertility, the sap of life. Bedecked in gold, she was the very embodiment of affluence, abundance and auspiciousness.

As she raised, rasa, life giving sap, began flowing in every direction. The earth palpated with life. Joy filled the air. Sacred elephants that hold up the sky came from the eight quarters of the universe raised their trunks and consecrated her with life-sustaining water.

With Lakşmī came a cow called Kamadhenu with enough milk to feed the world for all eternity, a wish-fulfilling gem called Chintamani and a tree called Kalpataru that bore evry flower and fruit desirable. Also came Kama, the delightful god of pleasure. With Kama came Priti and Rati, goddess of love and longing, and Vasanta, lord of spring. From her being emerged her seven daughters, the sacred river-goddess Ganga, Yamunā, Sindhu, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri who nourished the earth and supported life.

Along with Lakşmī came the six-tusked, white-skinned elephant Airavata and the seven-headed flying horse Ucchaishrava. The gods claimed the elephant and the demons, the horse. The goddess also brought forth a throne, a crown, a footstool, a parasol, a fly-whisk, a cushion, a fan, a bow and a conch – the symbols of kingship. Lakşmī sought someone who would not succumb to the allure of power, pleasure and prosperity. She chose Visņu. Vişnu placed Śreevasta, the symbol of Lakşmī on his chest.

Sarasvatī

Sarasvatī, goddess of learning and music, emerged in two forms as early as Ŗgveda of c.1300 BC. She was Vāc, both speech itself and the goddess of speech, and she was the goddess of now non-existent Sarasvatī River in the Punjab. Soon after she became known by the double name of Sarasvatī-Vāc. Hindus considered her to be the consort of Brahmā, the creator, whose swan vehicle she acquired. She is the river of consciousness that enlivens the creation. She is the dawn-goddess, whose rays dispels the darkness of ignorance. Without her, there is only chaos and confusion. To realize her one must go beyond the pleasure of the senses and rejoice in the serenity of the spirit.

Mythology:

In the beginning, there was chaos: everything existed in a formless fluid state.

“How do I bring order to this disorder?” wondered Brahmā, the creator.
“With knowledge,” said Devi. Heralded by a peacock, sacred books in one hand and a flute in the other, dressed in white, she emerged from Brahmā’s mouth riding a swan as the goddess Sarasvatī.
Said the goddess, “knowledge helps man to find possibilities where once he saw problem.”

By her grace Brahmā acquired the power to sense, thought and comprehension and communicate. He began to looking upon chaos with eyes of wisdom and saw the wonderful potential therein. Brahmā thus became the creator of the world with Sarasvatī as his wisdom and later consort.

The goddess so conceived to have many forms in different age gropus. When she is one year old she is known as Sandhyā, when two years old she is Sarasvatī, of nine years as Durgā, of ten years as Gourī, of thirteen years as Mahālakşmī.

Sarasvatī wore neither jewel on her body nor paint herself with bright colours. Her white sari reflected her essential purity, her rejection of all that is materialistic. The four Vedas, books of universal knowledge were her offspring. Her mount, the swan, came to personify pure knowledge and her herald, the peacock, became symbol of art.

Śiva, the destroyer once opened his third eye. Out came a terrible fire that threatened to burn the three worlds. There was panic everywhere. Only Sarasvatī remained calm. “Śiva’s fire burns only that which is impure and corrupt,” she said (Apasmara – the dwarf of ignorance or Avidyā).

She took the form of a river and with her pure waters picked up the dreaded fire. From that day, Sarasvatī came to be seen as the fountain-head of knowledge, Sharada, who leads man from darkness to light, from ignorance to enlightenment, from material decadence to spiritual upliftment.

Aum bhur bhuvah svahah
Tat savitur varenyum
Bhargo devasya dheemahee
Dhiyo yo nah prachodayat

May the pesplendent divine who is the life breath of the universe, who pervade the
three worlds, who removes miseries, brings joy, dispels darkness and ignores, propel
my intelligence in the right direction.

Sarasvatī is, essentially river-goddess but taken in high esteem by Vedic seers. She is both celebrated as a river and a deity. In the Ŗgveda, Sarasvatī does not appear to be anything more than a river goddess but, in the Brāhmanas she is identified with goddess of speech, vāc and consequently in the post-Vedic mythology she became the goddess of eloquence and wisdom and subsequently, became the wife of Brahmā.

In my opinion, the ŗşis understood the uniqueness of man – the power of speech. Also the Vedas were passed orally and required good speech (pronunciation) for shruti and good memory through wisdom for smriti. That is the reason which elevated Sarasvatī to the place of independent goddess as well as consort of the Creator, who with her wisdom removed all the chaos to carry on with creation.

Gańgā

Jawaharlal Nehru had called her a symbol of India’s age-long culture and civilization, ever-changing, ever flowing and yet ever the same Gańgā. The late Indira Gandhi did not consider it strange that the “Gańgā should have such an extraordinary hold on th imagination of the peoples of India…”

Mythology:

There are several versions of this myth. In one popular version from Vaisnava sources, the descent of the heavenly waters to the earth takes place from the ‘foot of Visņu’. The holy river had its origin in the heavens when Vişņu, in his vamana, dwarf-cum-giant incarnation measured three steps. His third step pierced the heavenly vault and caused the waters to flow. Throught the opening in the shell of the universe, the Gańgā flowed into Indra’s heaven, and settled around the immobile pole-star, Dhruva Tāra. In this form Gańgā is known as Vişnupadi. She meandered through the sky to the moon as the Milky Way, Ākāsh Gańgā and suggests the idea of a heavenly river.

The next episode of the myth describes the descent of Gańgā on earth. The story consists of long episodes which I shall not recount here. The heavenly Gańgā descended to the earth for salvic purpose, namely to animate and purify the 60,000 son’s of Sagara, who were reduced to ashes by glance of sage Kapila.

The Gańgā was brought down to the earth by Bhagiratha who performed fierce austerities on the Himalayan slopes and won the favour of the Goddess. She agreed to descend but warned Bhagiratha that the earth would split under the torrential currents of her fall. Gańgā asked him to placate Śiva. Śiva agreed to catch its gushing waters in his matted locks before releasing the waters. The mighty river wound her way through Śiva’s ascetic locks and found her course on the mountains and plains of India.

Dr. Madhu Khanna has compared the myth to the reality: the ecological implications of the myth can be decoded and its meaning lay bare. Water’s natural flow is rooted in a cyclic pattern. It continuously renews itself. Water circulates from land, sea to clouds by coming in link with solar heat. It returns to the land, river and lakes and underground streams below the soil and intermingles in the deep oceans…the course of Ganges as depicted in the myth is in consonance with ‘logic’ of the water cycle in nature.

Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan* also observes: the ecological message of the myth is as clear as the physical reality of the course of the Gańgā; with its origin in the Himalayas whether the mythically Kailāsa or actually Gomukha or Gańgotrī, the Vasundharā falls into the rich Deodar foreste through which it meanders, the several streams into which it breaks before reaching Haidvāra (literally the entrance of Hara Śiva).

Yamunā

Mythology:

Yamunā is the daughter of Seyna from the sum. On account of her shyness and trembling fear in meeting her husband, the sun cursed Sayna that a fickle river would be born of her. In other Purāņas she is the sister of Yama, the god of death. The harivamśa illustrates that Haladhara Baladeva brought Yamunā to his city through his plough. The Kūrma Purāņa alludes the sacredness of the river particularly in confluence of Gańgā and Yamunā at Prayāga.

As regards the blackish colour of the water Yamunā the Vāmana Purāņa writes that Mahādeva after destroying Dakşayajña was aimlessly wandering in the forests brooding over the loss of his beloved Satī. At this time Kandarpa hurled his weapon, thus maddening Śiva who in fury, anger and pangs of separation fell in the river Kālindī and consequently the water Yamunā turned blackish.

Though she was elevated to the status of divinity in the epic and purāņic ages she finds mention in the Aitareya Brāhmaņa, Śatpatha Brāhmaņa, Lāţyāyana, Ŗgvedasamhitā etc. point to the river and performed their yajñas. The Kūrma Purāņa highlights the sacredness of Yamunā particularly at its confluence (Prayāga).

The sculptures of Yamunā found so far indicate that she is similar to Gańga in iconographic features except that she has tortoise (kachchapa) as her vehicle. We do not know exactly when both the deities were amalgamated with each other and found together in sculptural representation. The personified images of Gańga and Yamunā they flank the doorways of temples. They appeared together profusely for the first time in the doorways of the temples during the age of the Guptas.

Meaning

Philosophical: “As śakti, prakŗti and māyā, the Devī is portrayed as an overwhelming presence that overflows itself, spilling forth into the creation, suffusing the world with vitality, energy and power. When the Devī is identified with these philosophical ideas, then a positive point is being made: the Devī creates the world, she is the world, and she is not understood so much as binding cratures to finite existence as being the very source and vitality of creatures. She is the source of creatures – their mother-and as such her awesome, vital power is revered.”

The idea of Brahman is another central idea with which the Devī is associated. In the Upanişads, and throughout the Hindu tradition, Brahman is described in two ways: as nirguņa (having no quality or beyond all qualities) and saguņa (having qualities). As nirguņa, which is usually affirmed to be the superior way of thinking about Brahman, ultimate reality transcends all qualities, categories and limitations. As nirguņa, Brahman transcends all attempts to circumscribe it. It is beyond all name and form (nāma-rūpa). As the ground of all things, as the fundamental principle of existence, however, Brahman is also spoken of as having qualities, indeed, as manifesting itself in a multiplicity of deities, universe and beings. As saguņa Brahman reveals itself especially as the various deities of the Hindu pantheon. The main philosophical point asserted in the idea of saguņa Brahman is underlying all the different gods is unifying essence, namely, Brahman. Each individual deity is understood to be partial manifestation of Brahman, which ultimately is beyond all specifying attributes, functions and qualities.

The idea of Brahman serves well the attempts in many texts devoted to the Devī to affirm her supreme position in Hindu pantheon. The idea of Brahman makes two central philosophical points congenial to the theology of Mahādevī: (1) she is ultimate reality itself, and (2) she is the source of all divine manifestations, male and female (but especially female). As saguņa Brahman, the Devī is portrayed as a great cosmic queen enthroned in highest heaven, with a multitude of deities as agents through which she governs the infinite universes.

She is not just an icon to be worshipped; an art object to be curated in a museum, a symbol to be decoded, a metaphor to be pried open, an ancient goddess that is an anthropological curiosity, a goddess whose marriage is a sociological analysis. Perhaps she is all of this but she is much more than the sum of those disciplines. She is chit, our very being, she śakti or the energy that animates us and the world around us; her presence is a doorway to anada or bliss; she is the very embodiment of isaundarya or beauty; not just sensuous but spiritual, a spandana or throb of knowledge through which we seek our own self.

The Kashmir Śaivism, which is strongly advaitic or non-dualistic in nature postulates an unique epistemology or system of knowledge from which emerges a world-view that has underpinned Indian aesthetics for the last millennium. The chitanada (or joyous self-awareness) for the Kashmir Śaivite leads the individual from ‘aham’, “I am” to the initial realization ‘aham idam’, “I am myself”, and then to the ultimate realization ‘aham evam vishvarupam’ “I am the entire world.” In the word ‘aham’, ‘a’ stands for Śiva (puruşa), ‘h’ stand for Pārvatī (prakŗti) and ‘m’ is the bindu or the anusvara. In chanting ‘aham’ one is not only asserting the togetherness of the two elements – puruşa and prakŗti but equally realizing that it is Pārvatī, prakŗti who herself brings the chant to a point of stillness through the bindu.

Practical: The famous astro-physicist Stephen Hawking argues that the universe is created from the gravitational attraction between the (active) matter and the (inactive) non-matter. The non-matter is a residue of the matter, which created distance because of repulsion due to their natural characteristic. As and when the condition changed and they by chance came closer the gravitational force attracted them towards each other and from there Big Bang took place, creating the Universe.

I take the liberty to assume that the presence of the matter and the non-matter together is well represented in the story of Ardhanariśvara; then the separation follows eventually leading to the gravitational attraction of the two opposite nature, as propounded by the Samkhya philosophy of (sexual) duality of conscious (puruşa) and unconscious (prakŗti) elements.

The essence of everything in this universe was Prakŗti, which ‘is inherent in everything but has no shape of its own. It has neither beginning nor end.’ It is the Nature and, exists even without any name or forms (nama-rūpā) as steam exists in water, fire exist in spark. It needs an external inactive force (puruşa) – fire to boil water to create steam and; air to blow spark to produce fire.

According to this practical philosophy, the body was like a plant which germinated from, the seed, grew spread and then withered away; yet, something remained. The seed disappeared from view but produced another plant. The seeds germinated due to the rains but what grew depended on the seed alone; that is, only paddy grew from paddy, not wheat. For a man, a seed was like his karma (action or doing) and Īśvara or God was like the rain, which was the cause of the growth of the plant. A logical inference from this principle was that the Samsār (a chain of appearances) had neither a beginning nor an end.

ARMS GLOSSARY

2006-04-13T22:11:00.000-07:00

Āftāb: (Persian). Sun.

Ankush: Elephant Goad. Haft with hook to control the movement of the animal.

Archer’s Ring: Throughout the greater part of the East the method of drawing and loosing the bow differs radically from those used in Europe. In it the thumb id put around the string and a ring is worn on it to protect it from the pressure and friction of the string when it is drawn and released. It also allows of bringing the pressure on the string at a single point close to the nock which makes the bow much more effective than the European method where three or four fingers are used to pull the bow.[1]

Asā: (Arabic). Staff.

Ashţ Dhātu: (Hindi). Eight metals.

Asi: (Sanskrit). A sword used in war and sacrifice.

Assadullah: The most celebrated of the Persian sword smiths. He lived in Ispahan in the time of Shah Abbas, 1587 – 1628. He is the best-known Persian sword maker and his blades are of the most beautiful sweep and balance, besides being of very finely watered steel.[2]

Astra: (Sanskrit). Boomerang. Any kind of missile.

Assay mark: Examination Marks.

Bāgh nakh: ‘Tiger Claw’. An Indian weapon. The name means tiger’s claw. It consists of four or five curved blades fixed to a crossbar or glove and carried concealed in the palm of the hand. On the opposite side of the bar there are two rings for the fingers.[3]

Baktar: (Persian). Coat of mail, a cuirass. Literally fish scales.

Barchhā: A spear. The word occurs in the Ain-i-Akbari and the Jahangirnama. Irvine concludes that the weapon was made entirely of iron and steel and was too heavy for use on horseback. This description does not allow for region variations in design. {Barchha A spear. The word occurs in the Ain-i-Akbari and the Jahangirnama. Irvine concludes that the weapon was made entirely of iron and steel and was too heavy for use on horseback. This description does not allow for region variations in design.}

Barchī (Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi and Bihar). In Kannada this weapon is called a bharji in the Mysore Armoury. The Maratha weapon is described by Sinclair. ‘Short pike for use on foot. Generally has a spiked butt and long narrow square head, with no edge.’ Steingass gives ‘barchakh, a small spear of the Hindus.’ The spear is described in an account of the battle of Samel in 1544 between Rao Malde Gangavat of Jodhpur and Sher Shah Sur where the Rajputs ‘attacked the army of the Afghans with their short spears, which they call Barchha, and with their swords…’[4]

Bārud: (Arabic). Bārut (Persian and Turkish). Gunpowder.

Bicchwa or bichhwa: An Indian dagger with a doubly curved blade and a loop hilt. The shape is derived from that of the old horn daggers which had the curve of the buffalo horns from which they were made.[5]

Biduh: A square block with Persian numeric (equivalent to Sri Yantra to capture the blessings of the Almighty). Buduh[6] (Arabic). Protective magic square (also Arabic tā’wiz) found on Muslim arms, particularly swords. It is popular in Islamic society because it is believed to contain the first nine letters of the Arabic alphabet in the old Semitic sequence, which was revealed to Adam. These letters carry a numeral value and are centred round the number five. Each arrangement was considered to relate to the four elements. The letters in the corner of the square are invariably 2, 4, 6, 8 that carry a numerical value read a buduh.

Bluing: Heating of metal (iron / steel) till it turns blue in colour.

Bhuj – A short, heavy, singe-edged knife blade mounted in line with a straight handle. It was quite common in India, particularly in Sindh and the north. It frequently has a small knife concealed in the handle.[7]

Blunder Buss: A short gun or a pistol of large bore with a bell mouth. They were not regularly used as military weapons, but were kept and carried for protection against thieves. These were introduced in England, probably from Holland, in the latter part of the 16th century and into Persia and northern India in the eighteenth century.[8]

Cartouche: Design of Alams etc. that usually has inscriptions in it.

Chadi: Walking stick. It often had a hidden weapon attached to the knob at the foot of the stick that unscrews to reveal a rapier.

Chahar-Kham: Four curved Indian steel bow.

Chamfer: The angle or slope.

Chevron: Chequered pattern. Chharwālī (Rajasthāni).

Chilanum: Steel dagger associated with the Deccan, forged in one piece with a recurved blade and a thin baluster grip; with flaring quillons and a variety of pommels surmounted by an ornamental knop.[9]

Churri: Knife.

Cutlas: Comes from the family of backswords like Cutlax, Curtle Axe, Coutelace, Coutel Axe, Coutelas, Coutel Hache, Cutlash and Cutlace. The names have been in use since the 15th century, in the 18th – 19th centuries it has been practically confined to the sabres used on naval vessels.[10]

Dhūp: A straight-bladed Indian sword. It is much used in the Deccan. [11]

Farsa: Hooked steel axe head attached to a haft.

Farsi: Village Farsi mounted on a lathi.

Flintlock: In the flintlock a piece of flint held in the jaws of the cock is struck violently against a piece of steel, the hammer, sending a shower of sparks into the priming powder in the pan, and the igniting the charge. Flintlocks were invented towards the close of the 16th century in Spain and Holland at about the same time.[12]

Forte: The upper part of the blade that is attached to the hilt and is covered by the languet before the sharp blade edge begins.

Fuller: Small depressions on the blade.

Gedia: Iron or steel stick / Chadi used as a mace, otherwise known as gedia. An iron or steel 'stick' used as a mace. This is described in the Sanskrit texts as salyaka.

Gupti: An Indian sword cane.[13] It is a secret (gupt) weapon, a rapier usually short and narrow attached to a screw that forms part of another weapon like Bhuj etc.

Jambiyya: The Arab knife which, in some modification is found in every country in which the Arabs have lived. The blade is always curved and double edged and, generally has a rib down the middle.[14]

Jauhar, Jauhardar: The grain or watering of Persian steel. The steel is made of welding together pieces of varying composition and hardness to form bars, which are twisted and welded in various ways that have more to do with patterns than the original material. After the desired object is forged it is polished and etched. Varying the number of the rods used and the way they are twisted and welded can control the pattern. The most usual patterns are named from the country in which they are made, as Iran (Persia) or from the figure, as pigeon’s eye, lovers knot, chain, etc.[15]

Kard: A straight bladed Persian knife with a straight hilt and no guard. The point is often thickened to permit it to be forced through mail. They vary much in size and shape.[16]

Karod: Rajasthāni. Saw-edged, of a sword. The talwar blades made in Sirohī with sickle edged blades appear to be 19th century.

Karud: Persia, a straight bladed peshqabz.[17]

Katar: The oldest and the most characteristic of Indian knives. The peculiarity lies in the handle that is made up of two parallel bars connected by two or more crosspieces one of which is at the end of the sidebars and fastened to the blade. The blades are always double-edged and generally straight, but occasionally curved.[18]

Katār Seh-Likhana: Literally ‘Three Scratcher.’ Katar with triple blade operated by a springs from squeezing the grip.

Khanda : The oldest and most typical of Indian swords. It has a broad straight blade, usually widening towards the point, which is generally quite blunt. Sometimes it is double edged but it generally has a straightening plate with ornamental borders on the back for a considerable part of its length.[19]

Khanjar: The name is Arab and means knife or a dagger. Fine curved blade usually with single fuller and single edge on the concave side, slightly upturned at the point.

Khanjarli: Egerton gives this name to a Hindu dagger with a strongly double-curved blade and a large lunette pommel. He also calls a precisely similar knife a Khanjar.[20]

Khil’āt: (Arabic). Robe of honour. Islamic rulers gave those as a symbol of approval and authority.

Khukuri: The national knife and the principal weapon of the Gurkhas of Nepal. It has a heavy, curved, single edged blade sharp on the concave side. The hilt is usually straight without a guard; occasionally it has a disk guard and pommel like the sword from the same region. It is carried in a leather sheath with two small knives and a leather pouch.[21]

Khyber Knife / Afghan Knife / Charas / Charay / Churra / Salawar / Yatagan: The national sword of the Afridis and other tribes living in and near by Khyber Pass between India and Afghanistan. It has a straight, heavy, single-edged blade tapering gradually from the hilt to the point; and has a wide rib at the back. The hilt is without a guard and has a slight projection on one side by way of pommel. The hilt is usually formed of two flat pieces of horn, bone or ivory riveted to the flat tang.[22]

Kilidj / Kilij / Kilig / Qillij: The Turkish sabre. The blade is broader, shorter and less curved than the Persian shamshir, but the main difference from the latter is in the point. In the Persian the back is fair curve nearly parallel to the edge, while in the Turkish the curve of the back stops eight or ten inches from the point. The hilt is usually pistol shaped and made of two pieces of horn, bone, ivory or stone fastened to the flat tang. The guard is straight, slim crossbar with balls or acorns on the ends.[23]

Kindjal: The knife universally carried in Caucasus. It is practically the same as the Georgian qama. A broad double-edged blades with nearly parallel sides for the greater part of its length, and a very long sharp point. Occasionally the blades are curved, with straight hilts made often of two pieces of wood or horn.[24]

Kirich: Single edged forward curve blade with false edge.

Kirk-narduban: 40-step pattern. The ladder pattern is one of the most common in Persia. In it there are well marked bands of transverse lines crossing the blade at fairly regular intervals. They are supposed to represent the rungs of the ladder on which the faithful ascend to Paradise.[25]

Knuckle-guard / Knuckle-bow: The finger guard of a sword.

Koftgari: The false damascening of India. Scratching and picking roughen the surface of the metal to be decorated, and a thin coat of gold or silver is pressed into the lines of the pattern and is held by the burrs of the roughened surface.[26] Koft – interwoven, koftgār – a gilder, a gold beater.

Kopis / Khrobi / Khopsh: An ancient Egyptian sword with a sickle shaped, double edged blade.[27]

Kubri (Hindi): Literally hunch-back because of its exaggerated loops, a fakir’s crutch made of bent tubular steel, used as a rest for the armpit or chin as an aid to meditation and usually concealing a stiletto in the hollow haft section which unscrews.

Languet: The vertical bars at the end of the hilt.

Matchlock: The earliest mechanism of discharging a gun. In India, there were three pieces the serpentine or S-shaped lever, a long trigger and a link connecting the two pivoted to the stock near its centre and forked at its upper end to hold the match. By pressing the lower end of the lever the match was forced down into the flash pan and ignited the priming.[28]

Motipada or Motipata: Moti or pearl that are inserted to a hollow channel. These are referred to in Persian literature as the tears of the afflicted, a reference to the dagger’s victims.

Pean: The hammering rectangular block attached to the blade of an axe.

Percussion Cap: A copper cap filled with a fulminating mixture and used for igniting the charge in the gun. Fulminate of mercury is usually the principal ingredients, but it is often mixed with sulphite of antimony, chlorate of potash or other salts to regulate the rapidity of ignition. It is popularly known as Topidār.[29]

Pommel: The knob at the end of a sword, or knife, hilt or on the butt of a pistol.[30]

Pusht-khār: Back scratcher.

Qama: The national weapon of Georgia. It is the original of the Cossack kindjal. Qamas vary less in size than kindjals and are more uniformly of good workmanship.[31] (MMT / 76 / 51 & 72).

Quillon: A sword guard composed of one or more bars between the hilt and the blade. In most cases it is a single straight bar, sometimes it is curved towards the blade (recurved), at others it curves towards the pommel.[32]

Ricasso: The Squared part of a rapier / blade next to the hilt.[33]

Sabre: A sword with a single-edged slightly curved blade, usually with a short back edge. It is intended mainly for cutting, but is also effective for thrusting.[34]

Saddle Axe: Tabarzin.

Sakhela: Shiny Indian steel with low carbon content, which renders it flexible[35]. The Eastern steel that shows peculiar markings is known by a great variety of names: Damascus, Wootz, Jauhar Ondanique, Andanicum, Alkinde, Hundwani and many others. In India and Turkey the watering is almost entirely due to the difference in hardness of the steels used. All of these steels show watering of different shades of gray.[36] The grain or watering of Persian steel. The steel is made of welding together pieces of varying composition and hardness to form bars, which are twisted and welded in various ways that have more to do with patterns than the original material. After the desired object is forged it is polished and etched. Varying the number of the rods used and the way they are twisted and welded can control the pattern.[37] In India, the pattern is different. Instead of pigeon’s eye, sakhela have running water or a chain pattern with lower carbon content.

Shamshir: The curved Persian sabre purely a cutting weapon with point being completely useless owing to the extreme curvature. The blades are narrow but rather thick, and are not usually decorated except with the name of the maker or owner, and perhaps the date. The hilts are simple and light with a single cross guard and a pommel projecting at one side.

Shashqa: Curved shashqa watered steel blade made in the Caucasus (for export). These Dagistan blades were exported without hilts to Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Persia, India, Afghanistan and Russia in very large quantities. They were a cheap version of the best Persian watered steel.

Sinan: A Persian spear with a long, straight blade tapering evenly from the socket to the point. (MMT / 76 / 616).

Sipar or zipar: (Arabic and Persian). Shield.

Śiprā. (Sanskrit). Helmet.

Sosan-pattah / Sosun pattah / Sosam Pattah: Single edged blade in the shape of Lily-leaf gradually tapering from the hilt to the point and a false (turns double) edge at the end.

Spine: The Broad edge on the blade often with inscriptions.

Swordstick or Gupti Asa:

Tabazin / Tabar-I-Zin: A large two-handed battle-axe; literally a “saddle-axe”. The Afghans commonly use it. Indo-Persian saddle axe.

Talwar: The Indian sabre, class name. It includes practically all of the curved swords used in India; but those of very marked curvature are frequently called by their Persian name, shamshir. The talwar is the commonest sword in India and the blades vary enormously in size, curvature and quality. The hilts generally have short, heavy quillons and disk pommels.[38]

Tang: The part of an edged tool or weapon that is inserted in a handle.[39]

Tegha: An Indian sabre with a broad, curved blade and a hilt like that of a talwar. Both the Marathas and the Rajputs used it.[40]

Toggle Iron: A whaling harpoon with a one sided head swivelled on the end of an orpn shaft. A small hole is drilled through both head and shaft and a wooden peg os placed in it when the harpoon is to be thrown. This keeps the head in line with the shaft and, when a strain is put on the line it shears the peg, allowing the head to swing round at right angles to the shaft, thus forming a toggle which holds it securely in the body of the whale.[41]

Tongia: Axe of the Gonds of Central India. Distinctive steel tribal axe with semicircular blade.

Watered steel: The Eastern steel that shows peculiar markings is known by a great variety of names: Damascus, Wootz, Jauhar Ondanique, Andanicum, Alkinde, Hundwani and many others. In India and Turkey the watering is almost entirely due to the difference in hardness of the steels used. All of these steels show watering of different shades of grey. In Persia the watering is due, in part at least, to differences in composition.[42]

Wootz: Indian steel made direct from the ore in Catalan forges.

Zafar Takeih: Literally “the cushion of victory.” A short sword with a crutch-shaped pommel, which is also the hilt. It was carried by Indian princes when seated on the masnad (cushion) giving guidance.[43]

Zagnāl: An axe with one or two heavy curved knife-like blades.[44]

Zupin: Twin bladed spearhead made famous by mercenaries from the Caspian region of Persia.

[1] Stone, George Cameron; “A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor in all countries and in all times”; P 14
[2] ibid; P 77
[3] ibid; P 86
[4] Cited by Gommans, p.55.
[5] ibid; P 112
[6] Elgood, Robert; “Hindu Arms and Rituals”; ‘Glossary’; P 238
[7] Stone, George Cameron; “A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor in all countries and in all times”; P 112
[8] ibid; P 121
[9] Elgood, Robert; “Hindu Arms and Rituals”; ‘Glossary’; P 242
[10] Stone, George Cameron; “A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor in all countries and in all times”; P 199
[11] ibid; P 207
[12] ibid; P 233
[13] ibid; P 270
[14] ibid; P 310
[15] bid; P 320 – 321
[16] bid; P 336
[17] bid; P 338
[18] ibid; P 344
[19] ibid; P 351
[20] bid; P 352
[21] ibid; P 397
[22] ibid; P 354 - 355
[23] ibid; P 356
[24] bid; P 358
[25] bid; P 321
[26] ibid; P 368
[27] bid; P 354
[28] ibid; P 441
[29] ibid; P 162
[30] ibid; P 512
[31] ibid; P 519
[32] ibid; P 520
[33] ibid; P 527
[34] ibid; P 530
[35] Elgood, Robert; “Hindu Arms and Rituals”; ‘Glossary’; P 260
[36] Stone, George Cameron; “A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armor in all countries and in all times”; P 661
[37] ibid; P 320 - 321
[38] ibid; P 601
[39] ibid; P 604
[40] ibid; P 608
[41] ibid; P 617
[42] ibid; P 661
[43] ibid; P 683
[44] ibid; P 684

MUSEUM POLICY

2006-04-13T21:59:00.000-07:00

Aim: To communicate the message of the Museum to the public through various means and build a transparent image.

Background: "A museum is a non-profit making permanent in the service of the society and its development and open to the public when acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits for the purpose of study, education and enjoyment of material evidence of human kind and its environment.” [ICOM]

The term 'communication' is derived from the Latin word communis, meaning 'common'. Communication is thus, the process of establishing commanality of oneness of thought between a sender and a receiver.

The primary mean of communication in a Museum is through its collection. Therefore, the collection of the Museum should be complete with respect to all the information it can communicate about itself. The medium used by the Museum to give the public a chance to interact with the object is through exhibition. Hence the exhibition should be structured to communicate well with the visitors and its central aim should be to educate the people.

For better communication, it is important to understand the public, its need and demands. Museum should have specialist in this field that can attract the public, relate them to the Museum and maintain a relation with them by seeking their advice and cooperation.

As communication is about building a common ground between two sides, i.e. the sender (Museum) and the receiver (public), the flow of information should be two-sided and the Museum should know its strength, weakness, opportunities and threats. But first, the public has to be convinced that Museums are not boring store houses of antiques but one can entertain oneself with the knowledge the objects provide. The public has to be made ready to make Museum as their first preference for both education and entertainment.

Museum Communication starts even before the public enters the premises. The first thing the Museum must do is to build an Image for itself. In the city people must now where the Museum is and the effort for this has to come only from the Museum. Also, from time to time the Museum must inform the people of its function and role in the present society. If the people do not come, then the Museum must go to them through various means like exhibition, education, advertisement and visitor survey programs.

Inside the Museum, Communication begins with the visitor’s interaction with the staff at the reception and greeting from the Security Personnel at the Entrance. It reflects the well or ill functioning of the Management Body.

A policy is not a law but guidelines for better functioning of the Museum, which can be followed and reviewed. The Management and the visitor will change but the Museum and the needs of the visitor will remain broadly the same. The communication is so effective that everyone wants to visit Museum and after the end of his or her visit, the visitor must make up his or her mind to come back again and again.

Objective:

To make the public aware of the Museum.
To develop the image of the Museum as a repository of knowledge.
To make the public visit the Museum and like to come back.
To make Museum a preference as a source of knowledge and entertainment.
To convince the public of the importance of Museum in present-day society.
To make public an active and responsible participant in Museum functioning.

Guidelines:

To formulate a Collection Policy
To formulate a Documentation Policy
To formulate an Exhibition Policy
To formulate an Education Policy
To formulate a Public Relation and Marketing Guidelines
To study and understand the needs of the visitors
To build an Image of the Museum
To have a written Museum Ethics
To employ professional management and security Museum Personnel
To assess the Museum periodically
To amend the Museum policy periodically

Article I: Collection Policy

Ø The Museum should have a written Collection Policy so that the public is aware of the nature of the Museum.
Ø It should not acquire objects outside its nature of Collection.
Ø The Museum must display its entire Collection to the public and rotate after some years so that the storage collection can also be displayed.
Ø The collection policy must take special care of preserving and conserving its Collection on set standards.
Ø If the nature of collection is multi-purpose than a uniform division pattern should be followed and equal number of specialist professionals be appointed.
Ø The nature of collecting of the Museum should not violate any International, National or Regional guidelines.
Ø The public should be given the clear understanding of the nature of collection and the Collection Policy.

Article II: Documentation Policy

Ø The Museum must document its entire collection.
Ø The Museum should have a Documentation Policy.
Ø The Museum should follow one standard and recognized pattern of documentation.
Ø The Museum should have its own Research department and researchers to thoroughly study and interpret its collection for correct documentation.
Ø The Museum should not be reluctant to seek outside consultation of its collection from specialists to gather as much information as possible about its collection.
Ø The Museum must not hide any information regarding the collection (if not very confidential for security problems).

Article III: Exhibition Policy

Ø The Museum should have an Exhibition Policy covering all aspects and various types of exhibitions
Ø The Museum must understand that exhibition is the face of the museum, where the public interacts with its collection.
Ø The Museum besides permanent exhibitions must organize temporary exhibitions to bring out the reserve collection.
Ø The Museums must organize traveling exhibitions and mobile exhibitions to take them to the people who cannot afford to visit Museums.
Ø The Museums must held exhibitions outside its region, within and outside the country to give every one an opportunity to view the collection.
Ø The approach to the exhibition should not be just display of objects but presentation of didactic information.
Ø The exhibition must take care of conservational hazards with respect to the objects.
Ø The exhibition must also take care of spatial orientation and physical fatigue-ness of the visitors.
Ø After every exhibition its impact on visitors must be studied and, in case of permanent exhibitions, the process of evaluation should be continuous so that it caters to all categories of visitor.

Article IV: Educational Policy

Ø Education should be center to all the activities of a Museum.
Ø The Museum must have rigorous Educational Program.
Ø The Museum should formulate an Educational Policy in consultation with various educational bodies.
Ø The educational programs should not be generalized but specific for various target audience.
Ø The Museum Educator must seek the guidance of the researcher and curator along with other educators before designing an educational program for any target audience.
Ø The Museum Educator must focus on out-reach programs so to reach the untapped audience and explain the role and importance of Museum in present society.
Ø The Museum Educator should also involve himself or herself in research of collection and visitor to avoid mere reliability of data collected by others, which might not be authentic.

Article V: Public Relation and Marketing

Ø The Museum must have a separate department of Public Relation and Marketing.
Ø The department should undertake research to understand the needs of the visitors.
Ø The department should be aware of the Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats of the Museum.
Ø It must be competitive with other entertainment and educational institutions.
Ø It must not falsify or exaggeratedly glorify in its advertisement to create a misconception.
Ø There should be specialists handling the Media, Press Releases and Publications of the Museum.
Ø The department must identify the places the Museum can use to advertise and feature prominently in the state’s and nation’s tourist brochures and maps.
Ø Organize various activities to draw visitors to the Museum.
Ø The department must be updated with the activities in the Museums and themselves must not go beyond the function and ethics of the Museum.
Ø They should be allotted separate budget.
Ø The department should be responsible for handling the special facilities provided to the visitors like maintenance of public toilets, cloakroom, cafeteria, parking space, signage within the Museum and outside for orientation, publication material to be taken away by the visitors, sitting arrangement, lifts, special facilities for the less enabled public and drinking water.
Ø If there is a Museum shop, it should be marketed properly to increase sale to benefit the Museum monetarily and, that it becomes a choice for the (native) visitors whenever they want to purchase a gift.
Ø The visitor when leaves the Museum should make up their mind to visit again and make Museum their first preference for both education and entertainment.

Article VI: Visitor

Ø Proper direction and signage should be provided in the city and other possible places guiding to the Museum so that the visitor can easily locate.
Ø Inside the Museum proper signage should be provided about the various galleries, cafeteria, drinking water facilities, toilets, offices and other places.
Ø A free Brochure should be given with the tickets with brief information about the Museum.
Ø If other special facilities are provided, the visitor should be made aware of it.
Ø From time to time visitor’s opinion should be taken about the functioning of the Museum and thoroughly evaluated and worked upon.
Ø At the exit of each galley or Museum a visitor book should be kept for the comments from him or her. They should be explained that their opinion is important for the Museum.
Ø Visitor research should also be done outside the Museum to know why some of the visitor does not want to visit and what are their needs.
Ø The visitor should be divided into various categories to understand needs of specific target audience as different people have different needs.
Ø In the Museum the visitor along with information should be provided with entertainment.
Ø The visitor when leaves the Museum should make up their mind to visit again and make Museum their first preference for both education and entertainment.

Article VII: Image of the Museum

Ø To build a positive Image of the Museum.
Ø The Museum should be transparent to its public.
Ø The Museum personnel should always keep it in mind and they should work towards this target.
Ø The Image should not be class or collection based but on its function and approach.
Ø The Image of the Museum must be modified with accordance to change of time.
Ø The Image of the Museum should be made such that the visitor makes it their first preference for both education and entertainment.

Article VIII: Ethics of Museum

Ø The Museum should have a written code of ethics, which it must adhere to.
Ø The public should be educated about these ethics.
Ø Ethically the Museum must work for community development and ecological preservation according to its nature of function.
Ø Ethically the Museum must feel responsible and answerable to the public.
Ø The museum must also work for the development of regional, national and international code of ethics.

Article IX: Museum Management and Security Personnel

Ø The Museum Management and Security Personnel must be professionally be trained.
Ø The Management Staff includes the Governing Body, the Curator or Keeper, the Museum Educator, the Museum or Exhibition Designer, the Administration staff, the Researcher, the Conservator, the Public Relation, the Security Personnel and marketing Officer and each and every member of that organization.
Ø The Management should direct all their activities to accumulate the needs of the visitor.
Ø The Management is answerable to the public and should be transparent about their activities.
Ø The Management should always be available to the public all the time for their queries.
Ø The Security must make the visitor feel welcome from the entrance itself.
Ø The Security personnel must be conscious to see that the collection is not stolen, as the Museum is answerable to the public and should be transparent in its activity.

Article X: Assessment of the Museum

Ø The museum must periodically asses its functioning in terms of drawing public.
Ø The Museum must assess if it has been able to be achieve its target
Ø The Museum must assess whether in a given time frame it has been able to provide basic facilities to its public.
Ø The Museum must assess the maintenance of its collection, the success and relevance of the exhibitions it has held, the working and updating of its permanent and to be renovated galleries, the research and documentation of its collection, the preservation, conservation and security of the collection, the public relation and marketing and its staff.

Article XI: Amendments of the Policy

Ø The Communication Policy must be reviewed after every 7 years.
Ø Regular records regarding the functioning of the Museum must be maintained so that the growing needs and changes may be identified.
Ø All the written Policies and documents must also be regularly checked and periodically reviewed.
Ø If need be, amendments must be made by the Governing Body after a thorough review.
Ø The amendment and review committee must comprise only experienced professional of this and related fields within and outside the Museum.

NAGAUR in RAIN

2006-04-11T04:28:00.000-07:00

HADI RANI MAHAL

Ranvas

BIKANER

2006-04-11T03:43:00.000-07:00

Junagarh Fort - Front View

Fort view through a jali

Junagarh Fort

Light, Colour and Shadow

Diwan-i-Aam

Prachina Museum Building in Junagarh Fort

Display of Arms in Junagarh Fort

PERSONAL

2006-04-10T05:49:00.000-07:00

Laurel n Hardy - Anumieta and Nilanjana

Anumieta's Meherangarh Band Party

Anumieta n Sujaya

Sujaya Banerjee, always ready to fire!

NMI @ Kovalam Beach, Kerala

Bikaner with Urvi!

Prahlad SIngh Jasol

Arnob Singhal

Memories of Meherangarh

2006-04-09T22:23:00.000-07:00

Memories of Meherangarh Fort, Jodhpur

View from my room as I was living inside the Fort.

My Apartment in Black n White by Vinay Singh.

View from Jhapa Mahal where Akbar Khan's Taj Mahal was shot.

Way to Fateh Pol

BUNDI n AJMER

2006-04-08T23:35:00.000-07:00

BUNDI

Bundi, a small town in southeast of Rajasthan surrounded by the Aravali Range from three sides is a center of Rajput painting that has its own style and school. A trip to Bundi would have covered the major centers of art and architecture of Rajasthan in the 18 months stay of mine in Jodhpur. So I set out on the 12th March 2006 night to board the 10 o’clock bus from the Jodhpur State Roadways Bus Stand at Paota.

Bundi is also known as Harauti or Haravati, the country of the Haras, the rulers of Bundi. In the 16th century the Bundi ruler like most of the Rajput states formed alliance with Mughal Emperor Akbar and managed to flourish without contributing much to either politics of the Empire or to their own state. However, unlike other Rajput schools of painting Bundi developed early in the 16th century even in the presence of the Mughals an independent style in painting.

In 1193 A.D. when Sultan Mohammed Ghauri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, some Chauhan nobles sought shelter in Mewar and became allies

to the Rana while other young warriors move towards the Chambal valley and overpowered the Meena and Bhil tribes establishing their own kingdom of Hadoti. Later, two branches of Hadas formed two separates states of Kota and Bundi, on either side of the river Chambal.

The Bundi palace is doubly fortified and the outer wall is linked to the white Taragarh (Star Fort) that was constructed in 1411 AD by Rao Raja Bar Singh, the final retreat. The fort is entered from the Hathi Pol (Elephant Gateway) that leads to a chowk (courtyard) with 8 pointed arched screens, which used to be a stable.

Above the stable is Ratan Daulat Hall built by Rao Ratan Singh (1607 - 31). It is also known as Diwan-I-aam as was used for Raj Tilak (coronation) ceremony. In the mid 17th century, Maharao Chatar Sal (1631 – 58) made extensive additions and built the Chatar Mahal and few apartments surrounding it. The palace room has paintings on the Pushtimarg, various themes from the life of Kŗşņa.

Above it is the Phool Mahal built by Rao Raja Bhoj (1585 – 1607). The palace was built in 1607 and has paintings on Raslila and various themes from the life of Kŗşņa. From the palace the stairs leads to the Badal Mahal built by Rao Raja Bhoj. The paintings in the Badal Mahal depict the typical square head figures that mark the Bundi School and contemporary Mughal-Rajput architecture.

It was interesting to note that there were similarities between the wall paintings in the palaces of Bundi Fort on the Pushtimarg and the paper paintings of Marwar of a later date (probably a century difference). The style lf hair tying as pointed out by Debra Diamond, Curator Freer Sackler Gallery could be the feature of the Pustimarg priest but what was noteworthy was the positing of the priests, the style the figure was drawn, the square head and body and, the lack of the typical bold Rajasthan colours.

Similarly, we see during the 19th century in Marwar the painters were using the red-orange pattern for the tents and canopies with golden floral patterns that reflect the early Bundi wall paintings in the Fort. The Marwar painters owing to the fact the marriage alliances between Marwar and Bundi may have borrowed this style, especially after Maharaja Bakht Singh (then Rajadhiraj of Nagaur), who was once helped by the Bundi ruler against his brother Maharaja Abhai Singh, the then ruler of Jodhpur.

At the foot of the fort is Chitrashaal on the north. It is a courtyard with few rooms that has paintings on various themes on the avatars of Vishnu.

Bundi is a town of numerous ornate baoris(step-wells) dating back to the 17th century. Raniji ki Baori (ASI protected) with its exquisite toran archway is one of the loveliest. It has in total of 55 baoris including 7 or 8 in the fort itself.

Other Place to See

Shikar Burj

Sukh Mahal

Chauth Mata ka Mandir

Cenotaph with 84 pillars built by Bhai Deva, the brother of Bheem Rao Anirudh Singh.

84 Pillar Cenotaph

Jain temples

The old town

Baoris

Rani ji ki Baori

AJMER

The same evening we went to Ajmer (4 ½ hour drive). Though Ajmer is known for the Hazrat Khwaja Mouinuddin Chisti Dargah and Arai-din-ka-Jhopra, what struck me was the havelis around the dargah.

Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhonpra is a remarkable structure of Indo-Islamic architecture built in two and a half days flat. This mosque was a Sanskrit college in the 12th century but in 1193 AD Mohammad Ghori destroyed the college and built a mosque in its place. It is built on pillars and surprisingly no two pillars are alike. The distinct pillars-and arched "Screen" with its ruined minarets make it a splendid architectural masterpiece. The monument has seven arched walls with Islamic calligraphy, though most of it now remains in ruins.

The archways are finely engraved with Kufi and Jughra inscriptions from the Holy Koran. The mosque has 10 domes supported by 124 pillars. These pillars depict Hindu and Jain architecture. This is a masterpiece of Indo - Islamic architecture. As legend goes its was constructed in two and a-half days (AdhAi-Din). It is a relic of an old mosque consisting of a quadrangle with a front screen wall of seven pointed arches. The distinct pillars and arched screen with its ruined minarets make it a splendid architectural masterpiece.

Beyond the Dargah, among narrow and crowded lanes, is this remarkable, early Islamic structure. Mohammed Ghori hurriedly put together a mosque within two and a half days, using the remains of several neighbouring temples. Pillars, from at least thirty temples, must have gone into the making of this elegant monument. According to another legend, the structure is named after a festival, which carried on for two and a half days.